Abstract
The study examined the nexus among irregular payment of modulated salary, teachers’ productivity and general welfare in Osun State, Nigeria. Descriptive research design was adopted and two-hundred (200) participants were sampled. Structured questionnaire tagged ‘Modulated Salary Structure Teachers’ Productivity and Welfare Questionnaire’ (MSSTPWQ) was used. Both inferential and descriptive statistical tools were used for data analysis. The empirical findings indicated that the irregular payment of modulated salary did not prevent serving teachers under consideration from being productive but they were unable to meet up with some of their welfare-enhancing targets. It was further revealed that there was no significant difference between male and female teachers’ level of productivity during irregular payment of modulated salary. Besides, a significant difference was discovered between teachers’ level of productivity based on school location but in favour of teachers serving in urban schools. On the part of welfare, the outcomes indicated that there was no significant difference in the teachers’ welfare level during irregular payment of modulated salary when gender and school location were considered. As a result, it was recommended that, employers should desist from applying contractionary wage policy during financial crisis, bush allowances should be introduced for those employees working in rural areas, employees in teaching industry are advised to enforce the professional ethics of their job and the need for financial institutions or other lending houses to review the mode of loan repayment in order to lessen the employees’ debt burden during the period of servicing the loan among others.
Keywords: Employees’ input, Employers’ output, Wage policy, Financial incentives, Non-financial incentives, Teachers’ Productivity, Teachers’ Welfare.
Received: 15 July 2020 / Revised: 17 August 2020 / Accepted: 9 September 2020/ Published: 28 September 2020
Contribution/ Originality
This study is the first to empirically investigate the nexus among irregular payment of modulated salary, teachers’ productivity and general welfare not only in Osun State in particular but also in Nigeria as a whole.
1. INTRODUCTION
Globally, without an iota of doubt, teachers are considered as a great variable input into the production function of educational establishment. As they occupy a vital position among the internal stakeholder of education towards effective coordination and utilization of all educational resources for the attainment of educational goals. This is in tandem with a statement contained in the document prepared by National Policy on Education of Federal Government of Nigeria (2013) which revealed that no society can rise beyond the quality of her prevailing inputs into teaching profession as well as educational system in general. This indicated that the quality of the education received by the recipients in any society is a function of the level of competency acquired and displayed by the teachers. In this context, however, a teacher is a person who by virtue of the length of training and skills acquired, qualifications possessed and professional practice embraced is qualified to influence others (learners) to acquire knowledge, competences or values within a formal academic settings with the intention of achieving good and successful teaching.
Good teachingrequires the teachers to ensuring that the content of the curriculum is taught in accordance with disciplinary standards of adequacy and completeness and the methods employed are appropriate with regards to the demographic characteristics of the learners (in terms of students’ age, gender traits etc.,) morally defensible and undertaken with the motive of improving the learners’ competence in connection with the content. In the same vein, successful teachingrequires the teachers to guiding the learners not only towards acquiring knowledge and skills by the means of good teaching but also to internalizing some reasonable and acceptable level of proficiency from the content taught (Berliner, 2005). Therefore, the ability of the teachers to effectively accomplish both good and successful teaching seem to be a starting point of determining the degree of being productive or otherwise.
Teachers’ productivity, in this context, is the degree of effectiveness and efficiency with which teachers interact with tangible and intangible educational resources being provided by the concerned stakeholders and utilize same for the attainment of educational objectives. These objectives comprised the acquisition of knowledge by the learners, the development of understanding and other general intellectual abilities, the development of conceptual, intellectual and subject-specific skills, the development of generic or transferable skills, and the development of values, motivation or attitudes to mention a few. Productivity according to Kusnendi (2003) cited in Hendra and Rezki (2015) can be of both individual and organizational phases. Individual productivity is embedded in the personal characteristics possessed by the individual employees in terms of mental attitude, efforts invest towards the quality of output and professional ethic embraced. While, organizational productivity components relate input with output in a more technical form. Giami, Oluwuo, and Anyamele (2018) were of the view that the teachers’ performance management occupies a great position towards teachers’ productivity in public senior secondary schools. As the teachers’ performance management framework is expected to enhance their service delivery level for the attainment of educational objectives and to align individual teacher performance with overall team performance. This is useful in identifying teachers’ area of competencies coupled with appropriate training and development programs needed to put in place for promoting teaching profession and enhancing teachers’ productivity.
However, it should be noted that having professional teachers within the academic settings seem to make such academic institutions more effective during the discharge of curriculum and co-curriculum activities. In the light of this, the professional quality possessed by teachers coupled with level of commitment toward academic tasks could serve as predictor vis-a-vis the likely standard obtainable within the school system. This is to say that if the good standard of education is to be achieved and maintained, teachers’ quality needs to be improved upon by not only advancing on academic and professional competences but also making available ambient work environment which aimed at impacting teachers’ performance and educational quality significantly. This is expected to be done not at detriment of providing good welfare packages-financial and non-financial incentives for teachers as and at when due.
Abdul-Hameed, Muhammad, Hafiz, Ghazanfar, and Arslan (2014) acknowledged that direct compensation such as salary and incentives as well as indirect compensation have positive but insignificant influence on the employees’ performance of the banking sector in Pakistan. In another development, the research work conducted among the workers of manufacturing industries in Makassar area of Indonesia by Umar (2014) revealed that wages received by the employees, motivational instruments instituted in the work environment and the level of job satisfaction maintained by the employees from the work have significant and positive directions on their performance. This implied that all thing being equal, the higher the wages received, degree of the work environment motivational ingredients provided and job satisfaction experienced by the employees, the higher the likelihood of observing increase in the employees’ general performance. Oshinowo and Olujuwon (2019) opined that teachers’ salary as well as prompt approval and payment of incentive packages like car loan, study leave, promotion and leave allowance have insignificant contributions to teachers’ job satisfaction and productivity. Asumah, Kuranchie, and Mensah (2019) submitted that the fringe benefits like accommodation allowance, transportation allowance, vehicle maintenance allowance, access to meals during work hours, availability and accessibility to soft loans, gratuity and pension or retirement plan, health insurance, accident insurance would enhance teachers’ performance in curriculum and co-curriculum activities. Teachers’ fringe benefits can be financial or non-financial in nature. However, the form of these benefits are not of paramount importance, but how prompt are being given to the teachers in return of the services rendered and responsibility fulfilled has to be given due attention. These benefits, according to Asumah et al. (2019) comprised performance related pay, incentive pay, merit pay, knowledge contingent pay, team based pay, profitability level of the firm, recognitions oriented, promotion and praises which may depend on the availability of resources and the culture of the organization. Even, some non-governmental bodies like the Parents Teachers Association (PTAs) and Old Students Association may take-up some merit-based financial and non-financial compensations for the well-deserved teaching and non-teaching members of staff. This indicated that welfare facilities (that is, intra-mural and extra-mural facilities) provided by either governmental or non-governmental bodies would usually aimed at enriching the physical, working and social life of the beneficiaries in order not only to enhance their effectiveness which will in turn impact productivity level but also to meet some of the intra and extra mural welfare needs. For instance, in school settings, intra-mural welfare facilities comprised availability of amenities like good sanitation, drinking water, bathing facilities, crèches for nursing mothers, rest rooms and canteens, facilities for prevention of fatigue, health facilities-first aid box and protective uniform for teachers during practical activities and many more. While, extra-mural welfare packages comprised teachers’ access to maternity benefits, gratuity pension, provident fund and rehabilitation, physical fitness, family planning and child welfare, education facilities, accommodation facilities, recreational activities, sports, cultural activities, transportation to and from the place of work (Mishra & Bhagat, 2007). In the same vain, Okeniyi (2003) identified that provision of housing, medical facilities, educational facilities, cooperative societies, holidays with pay, transport allowances, in-service training, social insurance schemes, job security and above all prompt payment of salaries and wages as some of the teachers’ welfare packages which normally go a long way in improving the living standard of teachers and performance. Shuaibu and M. (2018) reported that there was significant relationship between the teachers’ personal welfare packages and job performance. This buttressed the fact that when the welfare packages of the teachers are provided as and at when due by the concerned stakeholders, their performance may in turn be enhanced. Therefore, the arguments so far direct attention to the influence of employees’ welfare packages from the angle of prompt payment of wages and salaries at expense of irregular disbursement of the modulated salary on employees’ productivity and welfare.
1.1. Statement of the Problem
In Nigeria, there was a heavy manifestation of economic recession in 2014 which was accomplished with changes in macroeconomics variables like high inflation rate, high unemployment rate, decline economic growth and host of others. This had made some of the state governments like Kogi, Nasarawa, Benue, Oyo and Osun states to mention a few unable to pay their employees’ wages and salaries as and at when due. To this end, in 2015, Osun state government adopted a discretionary wage policy for state workers on the grade level eight and above (hereafter GL 8 and above) tagged modulated salary structure. The implementation of this modulated salary structure took effect in the month of July 2015 and evidenced in slashing the monthly take home (salary) of all the employees between GL8 to GL 17 by half which was in the long-run called half-salary.
Meanwhile, from economics point of view, income is considered as one of the major factors affecting demand for welfare enhancing commodities, such that, anything which alter the tone and volume of the income received by any employee, will bring about changes in the quality and quantity demanded for welfare-enhancing commodities as well as altering the morale needed for being productive in the workplace. Attention has not been fully tailored towards examining the nexus among irregular payment of modulated salary, teachers’ productivity and general welfare in Osun State, Nigeria. Hence, the study is designed to fill the identified lacuna by contributing and advancing on the existing body of knowledge in the literature.
1.2. Research Objectives
The study’s broad objective was to examine the nexus among irregular payment of modulated salary, teachers’ productivity and general welfare in Osun State, Nigeria. The specific objectives are to;
- Evaluate the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary influence teachers’ productivity in Osun State, Nigeria.
- Assess the impact of irregular payment of modulated salary on teachers’ general welfare in Osun State, Nigeria.
1.3. Research Questions
The following research questions were enumerated to guide the study.
- To what extent does irregular payment of modulated salary influence teachers’ productivity in Osun State, Nigeria?
- What is the impact of irregular payment of modulated salary on teachers’ general welfare in Osun State, Nigeria?
1.4. Research Hypotheses
The following research hypotheses were raised and tested.
- H0: There is no significant difference in the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary influence teachers’ productivity on the basis of the teachers’ gender traits and school location.
H1: There is significant difference in the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary influence teachers’ productivity on the basis of the teachers’ gender traits and school location.
- H0: There is no significant difference in the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary impact teachers’ welfare on the basis of the teachers’ gender qualities and school location.
H1: There is significant difference in the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary impact teachers’ general welfare on the basis of teachers’ gender qualities and school location.
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES
2.1. Empirical Review
Abdullah and Salihu (2018) examined the relationship between teachers’ welfare packages and teacher job performance in public junior secondary schools of Dutsin-Ma Local Government Area, Katsina State, Nigeria. Survey research design was employed in this research work. Probability sampling techniques were employed to select one-hundred and sixty nine (169) respondents from the targeted population slated for the study. Also, self-developed research instrument was used to obtain useful information which was analyzed with the aid of Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The empirical findings revealed that there were significant statistical relationship between teachers’ welfare in terms of prompt payment of salaries, allowances and promotions, provision of medical/health insurance schemes as well as regular payment of pension/retirement benefits and teachers’ job performance measured by classroom management. It is cleared to note that teachers’ performance was measured in a unidirectional form which in real sense of teaching profession should be evaluated from multidimensional point of view so as to incorporate other dimension that are of paramount important to the attainment of educational goals.
Oshinowo and Olujuwon (2019) evaluated the predictive impacts of welfare packages on teachers’ job satisfaction and productivity in public secondary schools in Lagos State Education District V, Nigeria. The study adopted the cross-sectional survey research design which was tailored towards the correlational descriptive research type. Non-probability sampling method was used to select two-hundred and twenty (220) participants from Lagos State Education District V which comprised Badagry, Ojo, Amuwo-Odofin and Ajeromi Ifelodun local government areas of Lagos State. The empirical findings originated from the multiple regression analysis indicated that staff training, house allowance, staff promotion allowance are positive but insignificant predictor of teachers’ job satisfaction and productivity respectively while staff promotion and hazard allowance had negative but insignificant influence on satisfaction level. It is concluded that job productivity is not predetermined by staff salary, car loan, study leave and leave allowance. The outcomes may in part be attributed to the author’ submission that majority of the respondents sampled were of the view that their salaries, promotion, house allowance and hazard allowance were paid as and at when due. Baluyos, Rivera, and Baluyos (2019) investigated the nexus between teachers’ job satisfaction and work performance in the Division of Misamis Occidental in Philippines during the school year 2018-2019. The study employed descriptive-correlational design and stratified random sampling technique was used to take one hundred four (104) school heads and three hundred thirteen (313) Elementary school teachers from the studied area. In addition, adapted research instrument tagged ‘Teacher Job Satisfaction Survey Questionnaire (TJSQ)’ was used to draw out the required information. However, statistical tools from descriptive (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (multiple regression) were used for data analysis. The empirical outcomes exhibited that the teachers are satisfied with their job as shown from the nine main construct engaged in this research work which comprised supervision, colleagues, working conditions, pay, responsibility, work, advancement, security and recognition. It was furthered revealed that teachers’ performance level during teaching-learning process, impact on pupils’ outcomes, level of community involvement and involvement in professional growth and development were satisfactory. The findings from the multiple regression analysis indicated that two (that is supervision and security) out of nine factors enumerated under teachers’ job satisfaction affect performance. While the remaining seven factors which consisted of colleagues, working conditions, pay, responsibility, work itself, advancement, and recognition didn’t predict the performance. Asumah et al. (2019) assessed the extent to which welfare management practices affect teachers’ job performance in Ghana. The study adopted descriptive survey design. Questionnaire was administered on one-hundred and sixty five (165) participants who were selected from three high schools in the Sunyani Municipality, Ghana with the aid of simple random sampling technique. The findings revealed that there was statistical significant and positive effect of working condition on teachers’ job performance, and that fringe benefit had statistically significant and positive effect on teachers’ job performance. Fadeyi, Sofoluwe, and Gbadeyan (2015) examined the relationship between teachers’ welfare scheme and job performance in selected Secondary Schools in Isin Local Government Area of Kwara State, Nigeria. Descriptive research design was employed and simple random sampling technique was used to select two-hundred and eighty (280) respondents. The data were analysed with the aid of Variance and Chi-Square Statistics. The findings indicated that there was significant relationship between teachers’ salary, promotion and students’ academic performance. It was also revealed that there was significant relationship between fringe benefit and classroom management. Mazaki (2017) evaluated the effect of welfare variable on teachers’ performance in public primary schools in Bugisu sub-region of Uganda. Staff welfare was regarded as the independent variable, while teachers’ performance was treated as the dependent variable. The study employed a descriptive cross-sectional survey research design with both qualitative and quantitative approaches, and data was collected from 559 respondents. Principal Component Analysis and Regression were employed to determine the pattern of interrelations and robustness among the constructs of welfare variable and their level of effect on teachers’ performance. Qualitative data analysis was done through thematic content analysis. The findings revealed that welfare is positively associated with teachers’ performance in public primary schools in Bugisu sub-region. The findings also revealed that housing, meals, and the school environment have a statistically significant effect on teachers’ performance in public primary schools in Bugisu sub-region, while medical care and allowances did not. It is concluded that welfare may account for teachers’ performance in Bugisu sub-region of Uganda.
2.2. Theoretical Framework
2.2.1. Equity Theory of Motivation
Equity theory of motivation was postulated by an American Psychologist called John Stacey Adams in 1963. This theory is all about the balance between employees’ input towards the production process and the employer’s output in terms of returns make available as rewards to efforts invested by the employees. In this case, it is a means of seeking a balance between the efforts invested into curriculum and co-curriculum activities by the teaching staff and the associated financial and non-financial benefits provided by the concerned stakeholders of education.
The input, however, entailed effort, skills, knowledge, experience, social skills and loyalty. Teachers’ effort should be reflected in the attendance in schools, this is because no effort means no work. They are expected to carry out their jobs competently and professionally by following the professional ethics of teaching, knowledge input is predicated on certification and qualification acquire by the teachers through schooling and training which enhances the effectiveness of experience input. Social skills expect teachers to participate in social activities organize by the members of staff either within or outside the school hours and even creation of pleasant working conditions and foster mutual respects as well as accepting and tolerating the behaviour of others. Loyalty input comprised doing something that relate to personal sacrifice, for instance, a teacher who remains loyal to teaching profession would remain in the teaching industry regardless of the availability of employment opportunity in the other organizations. Such a teacher may sacrifice his/her free time or period to teach the students. The financial and immaterial rewards are at the disposal of the employer as output to employees’ invested input. This consisted of salary, bonus, profit sharing, recognition, challenge and responsibility. The equity theory advocates that employee’s should be rewarded based on the degree of input towards production activities and that whenever the employees’ input outweighs the associated output from the employer, they will be unhappy and feel disillusion with the organization. The theory is relevant for this research work, this is because, for the attainment of educational objectives, all the aforementioned inputs are to be maintained by the teachers coupled with commensurable rewards from the concern stakeholders. The chart below exhibits the equivalent form of input-output processes of the equity theory.
Figure-1. Adams Equity Theory.
Source: Mulder (2018).
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research Design
Descriptive research design was employed. This was used not only to elicit useful information concerning the current status of the phenomena under investigation but also to describe the scenario with respect to variables engaged. This design encouraged the researcher to examine the variables of interest which had either previously happened or is happening at the moment without having substantive control over them. In the light of this, the design was considered appropriate for this research work, as the researcher’s intention was to assess the nexus among irregular payment of modulated salary, teachers’ productivity and general welfare level.
3.2. Target Population
All public secondary school teachers who were on GL 8 and above as at the period of the introduction and implementation of discretionary wage policy called modulated salary structure in July 2015 in Irewole, Isokan and Ayedaade Federal Constituency Area of Osun State formed the target population for the research work.
3.4. Sample and Sampling Technique
Both parametric and nonparametric sampling techniques were used to select two hundred (200) respondents among the targeted population within the studied areas. These comprised stratified random and purposive sampling techniques respectively. Purposive sampling technique as a segment of non-parametric was used to determine caliber of respondents to be included for the attainment of the research objectives and study location. As a consequence, only public secondary school teachers who were on GL 8 and above as at the time of the implementation of modulated salary structure in Osun State in July 2015 were the main subjects of this research work. This is because, they were the caliber of workers who received modulated salary packages from the state government during the payment of such and they could explicitly attest to its direction of interaction with their level of productivity and general welfare status. Besides, stratified random sampling technique as a component of parametric sampling procedure gives equal chance to every elements in the sample frame of being included in the sample. In the light of this, strata was created based on respondents’ gender (female and male) and school location in terms of school in rural or urban centers.
3.5. Instrumentation
Quantitative instruments was employed to collect pertinent information for the research work. The structured questionnaire tagged ‘Modulated Salary Structure Teachers’ Productivity and Welfare Questionnaire’ (MSSTPWQ) which was extracted from the first Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) conducted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and modified by the researcher was used to elicit quantitative data. This consisted of section A, B and C. Section A contained demographic characteristics of the respondents such as gender, grade level, school location among others, section B comprised sixteen (16) items on teachers’ productivity each accomplished with five Likert scale rating of VHE-Very High Extent, HE-High Extent, ME-Moderate Extent, LE-Low extent and VLE-Very Low Extent respectively while section C contained fourteen (14) items on teachers’ welfare with four rating scales of A-Agree, SA-Strongly Agree, D-Disagree and SD-Strongly Disagree.
3.6. Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
In order to effectively ensure the validity of the instruments used for this study, the quantitative instrument was subjected to content validity measurement which consisted of face and predictive validity. The content validity of the instrument was done by comparing each of the items included in the instrument with the objectives and research questions enumerated in the research work. On the face validity, the researcher ensured that the items were worded and typed in a clear and concise form as well as logically and systematically arranged in line with the enumerated research questions and objectives. For reliability of the instrument, the same instrument was administered on forty (40) respondents who received the modulated salary at the public primary schools segment within the studied location. Cronbach technique was used to test the reliability of the instrument which produced 0.73 and 0.81 for teacher’ productivity and general welfare respectively. This indicated that the instrument was consistent, suitable, reliable and appropriate for the study.
3.7. Administration of the Research Instrument
The administration of the research instrument was done in conjunction with a trained research assistant which lasted for six weeks during second term of 2018/2019 academic calendar. The researcher and his assistant collected the instrument immediately which revealed one-hundred per cent (100%) return rate due to the fact that the instrument was not given in proxy.
3.8. Data Analysis Methods
Both inferential and descriptive statistical tools were employed to analysis the generated data from the field.
4. RESULTS
4.1. Analysis Based on Research Questions
Research Question 1: What is the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary influence teachers’ productivity in Osun State, Nigeria?
Table-1. Descriptive statistics showing the respondents’ opinion with respect to the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary influence teachers’ productivity in Osun State, Nigeria.
| Items | Mean |
S.D |
| Maintain good classroom management practices during teaching-learning processes | 3.22 |
0.59 |
| Improve on the knowledge and understanding of the subject matter. | 3.40 |
0.61 |
| Improve on the knowledge and understanding needed in designing relevant instructional materials. | 3.31 |
0.60 |
| Enforce discipline and other behavioural problems policies of the school on students. | 2.52 |
0.37 |
| Attend staff meetings to discuss issues relating to the progress of the school. | 2.89 |
0.42 |
| Discuss and decide on the selection of instructional media (e.g. textbooks, exercise books) | 2.22 |
0.28 |
| Exchange teaching materials with colleagues | 3.35 |
0.63 |
| Ensure common standards in the evaluation of students’ progress | 2.01 |
0.22 |
| Engage in discussion about the learning development of specific students | 1.05 |
0.09 |
| Take part in professional learning activities (e.g. team supervision) | 3.11 |
0.55 |
| Ensure that school works are done according to the school’s educational goals. | 3.20 |
0.58 |
| Present a short summary of the previous lesson at the beginning of every lesson. | 3.35 |
0.63 |
| Check the students’ note for marking. | 3.52 |
0.68 |
| Work with students based on their individual capabilities. | 2.22 |
0.28 |
| Administer a test or quiz to assess students’ learning in every topic discussed. | 2.51 |
0.39 |
| Update statutory records such as lesson note, marks book, diary, register and quality assurance grading sheet as and at when due. | 3.72 |
0.70 |
| Grand mean | 2.85 |
|
Note: N= 200 Very High Extent (VHE) = 5, High Extent (HE) = 4, Moderate Extent (ME) = 3, Low Extent (LE) = 2 and Very Low Extent (VLE) = 1 Decision value: Low = 0.00 – 2.00 Moderate = 2.01 – 3.00 High = 3.01 – 5.00.
Table 1 contained respondents’ view towards the influence of irregular payment of modulated salary on teachers’ productivity. The empirical outcomes revealed that the teachers’ productivity level with respect to classroom management style, mastery of subject matter, improvisation of relevant instructional aids, exchange of instructional materials, involvement in professional exercises, planning the task in accordance with the attainment of school goals, presentation of a recap of every previous lesson at the beginning of each class, constant checking and marking of students’ note book as well as regular update of the statutory records were embraced to a very high extent regardless of irregular payment of modulated salary as having mean scores of 3.22, 3.40, 3.31, 3.35, 3.11, 3.20, 3.35, 3.52 and 3.72 respectively. However, other activities like enforcement of the disciplinary policy of the school which aimed at curbing behavioural problems among learners, attendance in the statutory meeting convey by the school management, discussion relating to the selection of instructional media by the teachers, employment of uniform standard of evaluating students’ progress, application of the individualized teaching approach and administration of relevant tools for assessing students’ learning in every topic discussed were to a moderate degree embarked upon by the teachers’ during the irregular payment of modulated salary with correspondent mean values of 2.52, 2.89, 2.22, 2.01, 2.22 and 2.51 each within the moderate extent decision region.
Research Question 2: What is the impact of irregular payment of modulated salary on teachers’ general welfare in Osun State, Nigeria?
Table-2. Descriptive statistics showing the respondents’ view towards the impact of irregular payment of modulated salary on teachers’ general welfare in Osun State, Nigeria.
| Items | Mean |
S. D |
| My basic needs such as food, shelter and clothe are regularly met. | 1.03 |
0.34 |
| I had unhindered access to loan facilities. | 1.54 |
0.53 |
| Burden of loan was moderate during modulated salary. | 1.26 |
0.47 |
| Good savings habits was promoted. | 1.42 |
0.50 |
| Able to meet up with transactional motive of holding cash. | 1.40 |
0.49 |
| Meet up with the payment of students’ school fee. | 1.25 |
0.45 |
| Meet up with the maintenance requirement of fixed asset like motors. | 1.05 |
0.37 |
| Availability of good sanitation equipment within the school | 2.23 |
0.78 |
| Provision of drinking water in the school | 2.22 |
0.77 |
| Availability of rest rooms and canteens for school staff | 1.40 |
0.49 |
| Provision of protective uniform for teachers during practical activities. | 1.51 |
0.51 |
| Health facilities like first aid equipment is provided in the school. | 2.12 |
0.72 |
| Accommodation is provided for every teaching staff of the school. | 1.26 |
0.47 |
| Means of transportation to and from the place of work is provided. | 1.22 |
0.45 |
| Grand Mean | 1.42 |
|
Note: N= 200 SA: Strongly Agree = 4, A: Agree = 3, D: Disagree = 2 and SD: Strongly Disagree = 1. Decision Value: Negative = 0.00 -2.00 Positive = 2.01-4.00.
Table 2 contained descriptive statistics of the respondents’ view toward the impact of irregular payment of modulated salary on teachers’ welfare. The empirical findings indicated that the welfare level of the public school teachers particularly extra-mural welfare facilities were not adequately met during irregular payment of modulated salary structure. This was evinced in the negative notions expressed towards majority of teachers’ welfare items. In terms of extra-mural welfare facilities, it was claimed that the family basic needs were not met, inadequate access to loan from financial house prior to introduction of modulated salary structure was experienced, burden of debt from financial house was so heavy to bear, savings habits was hampered, sufficient cash was not available for transactional motive, children school fee were not paid as and at when due and inability to maintain some of the fixed asset like motor as having mean values of 1.03, 1.54, 1.26, 1.42, 1.40, 1.25and 1.05 respectively which were within the negative region of the decision value.
On the part of intra-mural welfare facilities, that is, welfare packages which are made available within the school system not only for ensuring smooth running of the academic tasks but also for attaining teachers’ well-being during the time of serving in such a school. It was acknowledged from the mean values of 2.23, 2.22 and 2.12 that drinking water, good sanitation facilities and first aid kits were available within some of the public school. In contrary, rest rooms and canteens, protective uniform for teachers, accommodation and means of transportation were virtually not in place for the benefits of public school teachers during the irregular payment of modulated salary structure as having mean scores of 1.40, 1.51, 1.26 and 1.22 respectively.
4.2. Analysis Based on Research Hypotheses
Table-3. T-test showing the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary influence teachers’ productivity based on gender qualities and school location in Osun State, Nigeria.
| Variable | Number |
Mean |
S.D |
D.F |
T-Tab |
T-Cal |
Remark |
|
| Teachers’ Productivity | Male |
105 |
58.53 |
7.91 |
198 |
1.96 |
0.02 |
Insig. |
Female |
95 |
58.51 |
6.13 |
|||||
Rural |
76 |
58.33 |
7.34 |
198 |
1.96 |
-2.59 |
Sig. |
|
Urban |
124 |
61.20 |
8.02 |
Table 3 contained empirical findings with respect to the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary influence teachers’ productivity based on gender qualities and school location. Sixteen (16) items were enumerated towards this research hypothesis having the maximum scores of eighty (80). The empirical findings revealed that there was no significant difference between males and females in the influence of irregular payment of modulated salary on teachers’ productivity. This is because t-calculated value of 0.02 was less than t-tabulated value of 1.96 at 5% level of significance. Based on school location, a significant difference was discovered between teachers level of productivity in rural and urban school setting during irregular payment of modulated salary which was in favour of teachers in urban location. This was evidenced from the absolute value of t-calculated figure of 2.59 which was greater than t-tabulated figure of 1.96 at 5% level of significance. Hence, on the teachers’ productivity, the null hypothesis was upheld for gender traits and rejected for school location.
Table-4. T-test showing the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary impact teachers’ general welfare based on gender traits and school location in Osun State, Nigeria.
Variable |
Number |
Mean |
S.D |
D.F |
T-Tab |
T-Cal |
Remark |
|
|
Teachers’ Welfare |
Male |
105 |
22.81 |
5.05 |
198 |
1.96 |
-0.208 |
Insig |
Female |
95 |
22.96 |
5.12 |
|||||
Rural |
76 |
25.05 |
5.23 |
198 |
1.96 |
-0.262 |
Insig |
|
Urban |
124 |
25.25 |
5.24 |
Table 4 contained empirical outcomes on the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary impact teachers’ welfare based on gender traits and school location. Fourteen (14) items were enumerated towards this research hypothesis as having the maximum scores of fifty-six (56). The outcomes based on gender and school location exhibited that there was no significant difference in the teachers’ welfare level during irregular payment of modulated salary in Osun State respectively. The decision was originated from the fact that the absolute values of t-calculated for gender and school location which stood at 0.208 and 0.262 were less than the critical value of 1.96 at 5% level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis was embraced.
5. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
In spite of the introduction and implementation of modulated salary, the study revealed that the teachers’ productivity level with regards to classroom management and control during teaching-learning interactions, mastery of the subject content, application of relevant instructional aids, involvement in professional activities like examination supervision, update of statutory school records-diary, lesson note, quality assurance grading sheet etc., maintenance of disciplinary standard of the school among other remained unaffected. The implication of this outcome may in part be that teachers are dealing with human beings and their attention are needed by the learners from the time the school opens in the morning till the closing period, unlike employees in non-educational establishment who are working with files and may even decide not to treat such files due to delay in their monetary incentives until the order about the deadline is given without any substantive implication. Besides, the tasks of teaching are procedural in nature such that some academic content from the syllabus have to be covered during a specific time period and internalized by the learners before proceeding to the next aspect regardless of whether or not the financial incentive is paid as and at when due. Aside this, the caliber of teachers under consideration exhibited the attributes of being hard work, committed and dedicated to the clarion call of teaching profession. This was in tandem with submission made by Oshinowo and Olujuwon (2019) in which public school teachers’ job productivity was considered not to be pre-determined by disbursement of financial incentives like salary, car loan, study leave and leave allowance. Giami et al. (2018) corroborated this by acknowledging that teachers’ productivity is a function of teachers’ performance management framework instituted within the school settings rather than financial incentives alone.
Based on welfare, the empirical outcomes indicated that the teachers’ general welfare were affected during the irregular payment of modulated salary structure in the state. This reflected in their inability to meet up in full with family basic needs, inadequate access to loan facility, high burden of debt from financial houses, poor savings habits during the period, inability to pay children school fee on time, non-availability of intra-mural welfare facilities like rest rooms and canteens within the school system, protective uniform for teachers, accommodation and means of transportation to and from the school. This implies that the teachers’ welfare was hindered by not only irregular payment but also introduction of modulated salary structure called half salary to workers of grade level eight and above in the state. This may be attributed to the fact that the teaching profession require enough time from teachers towards preparation of lesson, delivery of the prepared lesson, evaluation of the success or otherwise of the delivered lesson, enforcement of the disciplinary policies and many more which may prevent them from embarking on non-academic related business and in turn minimize their chance of getting financial resources to augment the half salary during the implementation of modulated salary structure and thereby causing setback in the process of achieving welfare enhancing goods or services. This was in agreement with the inference made from Focus Group Discussion by Gilman, (2017), that teachers’ would prefer a realistic monetary incentives packages such as monthly salaries, transfer allowances, periodic upward adjustments of salary scales and leave allowances that correspond to their workload. It was also in support with the claim made by Jonathan, Darroux, and Thibeti (2013) that the salary structures and remuneration packages for employees in teaching profession are to be fine-tuned in relation to other professions in order to improve teachers’ welfare. This is because monetary incentives associated with a particular profession serve as a means of expressing the value of the employees in such a profession in the society.
Furthermore, the empirical evidences based on gender qualities revealed that there was no significant difference in the extent to which irregular payment of modulated salary influence teachers’ productivity. This was in consonance with conclusion made by Shilpa and Usha (2018) that there was no reason for seeing teachers’ gender as a barrier towards productivity in any academic settings, in as much as, such a teacher is not only certificated, active and interested but also qualified to be in teaching profession. Based on school location, a significant difference was discovered between teachers level of productivity in rural and urban school setting during irregular payment of modulated salary which was in favour of teachers in urban location. This may be attributed to availability and accessibility to various forms of teaching resources in the urban schools. This was in consonance with research findings conducted by Aransi (2019) in which significant difference in the performance of students based on school location, but in favour of students in urban centers was acknowledged. This means that there was a complementary role being played by urban teachers’ productivity and urban students’ academic performance. On the part of welfare, the outcomes indicated that there was no significant difference in the teachers’ welfare level during irregular payment of modulated salary while gender and school location were considered. This buttressed the fact that all teachers who received modulated salary structure were in one way or the other lack access to certain extra-mural welfare facilities regardless of their gender attributes and school location.
6. CONCLUSION
It was deduced and concluded from the empirical outcomes that the irregular payment of modulated salary did not prevent serving teachers in public secondary schools from being productive but hindered their ability to access and enjoy extra-mural and intra-mural welfare facilities. Besides, there was no significant difference between males and females based on productivity level when irregular payment of modulated salary structure was implemented, while a significance difference existed in the teachers’ productivity level on the basis of school location.
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
Therefore, based on the empirical findings of this research work, the following recommendations were enumerated for the concerned stakeholders.
- Government should introduce and embrace financial incentive like bush allowance for teachers serving in any of the rural public schools within the state irrespective of their gender qualities. As this would help in boosting their morale towards effective discharge of their academic and non-academic assignments.
- Government should put in motion non-monetary but welfare enhancing facilities such as means of transportation to and from the school and construction of staff quarters regardless of the school location so as to ease teachers’ movement as well as accommodate those who are not indigene of the community within which school is situated and even interested ones among the serving indigenes.
- Stakeholders of education both governmental and non-governmental bodies should work either individually or collectively to provide intra-mural welfare facilities such as protective uniform for practical activities in the school, borehole water, canteen to name a few within each of the public schools for the benefit of the members of staff and students regardless of school location.
- Government should desist from adopting and applying contractionary wage policy to teachers’ salary scales whenever there is financial crisis, but may put on hold other incentives like car and housing loans for short period of time not minding the gender of the teacher and school location.
- Teachers are advised to uplift and maintain professional ethics as well as standard embedded in teaching profession through internal drive (i.e intrinsic motivation) without weighing workload and associated monetary incentives provided by the concerned stakeholders of education. As this would help in achieving the goals of establishing and operating the schools.
- Stakeholders of modern and traditional financial houses like conventional banks, cooperative societies and many other should revisit and review teachers’ mode of loan repayment during wage crisis which emanated from the government in order to lessen the burden of compound or penal interest during the period of servicing the loan.
Funding: This study received no specific financial support. |
Competing Interests: The author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. |
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