Index

Abstract

Given the limited research on Organizational Citizenship Behavior in the foodservice industry, this study attempts to investigate the effect of organizational self-esteem, organizational commitment, and the reception of tipping on organizational citizenship behavior. This study provides the necessary context to the relative mindset of the selected study participants (working students of Hospitality within restaurant organizations). Using the analysis of 45 tested (surveyed) students within a university setting; this study successfully drew conclusions about the relative correlation between the aforementioned constructs. The findings of the study contribute to the literature by helping and guiding foodservice and hospitality practitioners to consider influencing the perception of reception of tipping, the development of organizational self-esteem, and the positive organizational commitment to ensure that organizational citizen behavior is built. This paper can be useful for educators, managers, researchers, and students who are attempting to provide context for the contributions towards a positive working environment, and the implications of such.

Keywords: Tipping, Citizenship behavior, Self-Esteem, Commitment, Organizations, Perceptions.

Received: 26 November 2019 / Revised: 30 December 2019 / Accepted: 3 February 2020/ Published: 5 March 2020

Contribution/ Originality

This study addresses theoretical and empirical gap by showing that tipping reception, organizational self-esteem and organizational commitment are essential for the construction of Organizational Citizen Behavior.

1. INTRODUCTION

Research shows that employee behavior is important to provide a good service and ensure company’s task performance. However, in stressing the importance of organizational citizen behavior (OCB) research in the foodservice industry, researchers have not stressed the primary antecedents. In specific, less is known empirically about the role of tipping reception, organizational self-esteem, and commitment on the formation of OCB. In the context of the foodservice industry, we know little about the antecedents of OCB. Current research suggests that tipped restaurant employees is an important precursor to build a positive citizen behavior among employees. It encourages employees to feel that their work is compensated not only by the company but also by customers.

Similarly, research suggests that self-esteem, the feeling of being able, and the commitment, the connection with the organization, are two significant antecedents of OCB. The literature suggests that Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is a discretionary employee behavior which maintain and enhance the social and psychological context supporting task performance (Organ, 1997). It is considered critical for an organization’s long-term performance (Takeuchi, Bolino, & Lin, 2015).  However, whether employees who receive rewards in a form of tips, employees with high self-esteem, and strong organizational commitment are applicable to guarantee OCB and how OCB can be built in the food service industry have been rarely been empirically examined. While this construct has been studied extensively regarding the antecedents and consequences, it has not been examined in the contexts of restaurants relating to tipping practices.

Integrating commitment, self-esteem and the reception of tip, the current study attempts to investigate the antecedents to employee citizenship behaviors in the restaurant setting. The purpose of the present study is to address this theoretical and empirical gap by showing that tipping reception, organizational self-esteem and organizational commitment are essential for the construction of OCB.  More significantly, this study addresses the question of how OCB can be reinforced by the effect of tipping perceptions, organizational commitment and self-esteem.   The results of this study will be used to evaluate the current perception held by relative (educated and practicing) respondents within the industry and will provide a milestone in the timeline surrounding how the overall practice of tipping continues to evolve in both practice and perception as a guide for future research.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Defining Citizenship Behavior

Citizenship Behavior, which has also been ascribed as “Good Soldier Syndrome” (Bies, 1989) consists of the behavior an employee demonstrates towards their job, including voluntary innovative and spontaneous behavior the benefits the employer (and / or organization therein] without necessarily benefiting the employee (Bies, 1989).  A study conducted by Konovsky and Pugh (1994) made the additional note that Citizenship behavior classifies as a social-contract [exchange] in terms of application and is often swayed by outside variables that directly influence other factors such as motivation and self-esteem, or behavioral patterns.  As a concept, citizenship behavior has seven dimensions, which include helping behavior, sportsmanship, organizational loyalty, organizational compliance, individual initiative, civic virtue and self-development (Konovsky & Pugh, 1994). Citizenship behavior is seen as a self-motivated concept, being that it is ‘unrewarded,’ and discretionary (Konovsky & Pugh, 1994) however, it is a defined measurement for organizational success and effectiveness, and has been used as a parameter for researchers studying motivational theories since as early as 1964, when it was first classified by Daniel Katz (Katz, 1964; Konovsky & Pugh, 1994).

2.2. Citizenship Behavior and Tipping

Current research suggests intrinsic links between the concepts of organizational self-esteem, organizational commitment, and overall attitude towards tipping procedures within their relationship to citizenship behavior; while not strictly causal in their respect to one another; the constructs demonstrate high levels of correlation to one another.

The link between citizenship behaviors and views on tipping [for employees] has significantly less research behind it and is the prime motivation for the inception of this study. Blau’s theories on collective social exchange apply the view on the way citizenship behavior and tipping policies are correlative. According to Blau (1964) a hired person of an organization views the benefits [and costs] of his/her working situation as a collective experience from individual exchanges that happen over a period of time, eventually transcending into the relationship that the employee holds with their working environment (Burrell & Morgan, 2019). Suggesting that the policy of tipping is interpreted in multiple ways; in an environment where an employee receives a high number of tips and holds a steady organizational, self-esteem, and commitment to their organization. The perception of their situation is likely to be more positive, which will increase their overall citizenship behavior – whereas a situation in which the employee receives little or no compensation is likely to bear a less-progressive social exchange, with the employee having lowered morale and subsequent citizenship behavior overall. The manner in which employees held a common belief of the ‘contractual change relationship’ highly affected the overall measureable levels of commitment, and therein the organizational citizenship behavior (Chun, Shin, Choi, & Kim, 2013).

H1: There is a positive relationship between reception of tipping within an organization and OCB.

2.3. Defining Organizational Self-Esteem

Organizational-Based Self-Esteem is a concept that, since it’s development within the 1970’s, has been thoroughly examined within relevance to ideals such as employee retention, employee engagement, and citizenship behavior (Kim & Beehr, 2018). Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach, and Rosenberg (1995) defined ‘self-esteem’ as an individual’s overall evaluation of their competencies. They state that individuals maintain their own gauges for measurements of success and suggest that self-esteem is a reflective concept of the image one holds of themselves foremost (Rosenberg et al., 1995). A major factor that determines self-esteem is the belief that one possesses the ability to influence a situation (Creed, Bloxsome, & Johnston, 2001). In 1989, Pierce et al. developed the concept of self-esteem into Organizational-based Self-Esteem (OBSE), recognized as the extent to which an individual recognizes his/her ability to work, to contribute, and to provide value to the organization. Individuals with strong [high] OBSE derive greater and more sustainable satisfaction more easily where their jobs are concerned and find their OBSE is less prone to fluctuations than ‘global’ (original) self-esteem, as it develops from an outer conceptualization of oneself into an inner level of self-concept (Kim & Beehr, 2018).

2.4. The Impact of Organizational Self-Esteem on Citizenship Behavior

Gardner and Pierce reported a positive relationship between OBSE and citizenship behavior, indicating that individuals who perceived themselves to be valuable assets within their organization engaged in behavior that said organization would value, and for which they would demonstrate appreciation (Gardner & Pierce, 2010) . Korman amended this hypothesis by stating that persons with a high general self-esteem and OBSE will be more engaged in activities that permeate an organization’s good image (Korman, 1970; Korman., 1971) . Francis Flynn rounded this theory out by adding that employees that engaged in citizenship behavior were likely to experience a greater level of social status within their organization, which would increase their self-esteem, and lead to them continuing to contribute greater citizenship behavior, correlating a cyclical nature between the concepts of OBSE and citizenship behavior (Flynn, 2003) .

Rosenfeld, Giacalone, and Riordan (1995) propose the theory that individuals with high organizational based self-esteem avoid engaging in activities that could generate negative feedback, and inherently seek out behaviors and attitudes that would allow them to be seen in a positive regard from fellow associates, which would lead to their own higher self-regard. Because of the importance of self-determination in developing a [positive or negative] self-esteem, there is a high likelihood that an individual seeking to enhance or steady their OBSE will engage in behaviors that are positive from multiple sides – citizenship behavior, as a whole (Ojo, 2017) .

H2: There is a positive relationship between Organizational Self-Esteem and OCB.

2.5. Defining Organizational Commitment

Organizational Commitment Behavior (OCB) has been a process studied greatly within the last fifty years and is a primary focus of employers and organizations that are seeking to analyze and develop their employees beyond the standard parameters. Definitions for OCB have varied in the time since its inception; widely, it is seen as an attitude towards an organization that gives employees their willingness, energy, and loyalty to act in a manner that is mutually beneficial for both the organization and themselves (Sheldon, 1971). It is a phenomenon widely recognized as a relationship between employees and employers. Overall, OCB is accepted to include a notion of membership (Boxall & Winterton, 2018). It is reflective of the current position of an individual (Boxall & Winterton, 2018) and has predictive potential regarding certain aspects of performance, motivation to work, and spontaneous outcomes (Boxall & Winterton, 2018).

2.6. How Organizational Commitment Influences Citizenship Behavior

Lynn Shore and Sandy Wayne examined the correlation between commitment behaviors and impression management found that organizational commitment and citizenship behavior were both positively affected by similar constructs (related to compliance and altruism on the parts of both the employer and the employee) (Shore & Wayne, 1993) Shore and Wayne’s study filled a significant gap within the research field in being able to successfully [definitively] link organizational commitment behavior to citizenship behavior, and was a turning point in research conducted within the field thereafter. The theory of collective social exchange postulates that employees of an organization will determine their social exchange with an organization as a single entity, despite having differing overall experiences (Burrell & Morgan, 2019).  These shared perceptions affect an employee’s individual level of commitment to an organization, which then affects their individual citizenship behavior, which wholly affects the collective citizenship behavior of the employees in the organization as a whole (Burrell & Morgan, 2019).

Figure-1. Organizational citizenship behavior in services

H3: There is a positive relationship between Organizational Commitment and OCB.

The proposed relationships are depicted in Figure 1.

3. METHOD OF STUDY

3.1. Data Collection

Data collection for this research was employed through the usage of primary research (self-conducted study with firsthand information). Twenty to fifty hospitality-educated students with current or prior paid experience within the restaurant industry were invited to fill out a survey regarding views on tipping (and the policies and practices related therein) and the manners in which it relates to latter concepts. The primary data sources were collected from a controlled pool of (61 reduced to 45) survey-takers from a Midwestern school of hospitality, with prior consent from all parties involved.

Participants within the survey were primarily considered for selection within the research if they fit two parameters: they had worked a paid position within the hospitality / restaurant industry before (or currently) and were current (or recent) students of hospitality.

3.2. Measures

The Outlook of Tipping Practices was used to measure Tipping. Within the section, it was the goal of the author to ask a set of seven questions that will examine the attitudes towards tipping that both sets of survey-takers (tipped workers and non-tipped workers) hold towards the practice in general application to the restaurant industry. The questions asked were entirely opinion-based and were evaluated using a Likert Scale.
Pierce’s Organizational Self-Esteem Principles was used to measure Organizational Self-Esteem. Pierce’s scale determines the approximation of confidence one holds in their own abilities to perform satisfactorily whilst in a workplace by rating answers to each of ten questions that are centered around the ‘feelings’ of an employee regarding their self-respect and contribution levels to an organization (Gardner & Pierce, 2010; Kim & Beehr, 2018).

Each question is answered of its own merit, and given a value using a 7- point Likert Scale; these individual rankings are used to average out an employee’s organizational-based self-esteem (OBSE). The scale was presented within its original form.

Mowday’s Organizational Commitment Questionnaire was used to measure Organizational Commitment. Mowday’s questionnaire was a measurement tool developed in 1979 to assign a value (and then assess that value) of an individual’s dedication and longevity within an organizational environment by calculating a numerical figure to assign with their expected ‘stay time’ to said organization (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1979).  Each question is answered of its own merit, and given a value using a Likert Scale. The same questions were asked with a shortened version of Mowday’s original scale.

Cho’s Organizational Citizenship Behavior Reduction was used to measure Organizational Citizenship Behavior. Cho’s Reduction refers to selective valuation [of the original measurement of citizenship behavior] as developed by Seeonghe Cho in 2008; in Cho’s study, ten of the standard 48 questions to evaluate citizenship behavior to navigate the restaurant industry in particular regarding citizenship behavior as behaviors that limit or negate entirely the contribution and / or increase of workplace problems within an organizational environment (Cho, 2008).

Cho’s method allows the parameters of the five specific categories of discretionary behaviors (altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue) to be touched upon relevant to the industry in question, without creating an entirely separate study. Each question is answered of its own merit, and given a value using a Likert Scale. The scale presented was in the renovated form used in Cho’s research to maintain clarity for the purpose of the research.

3.3. Data Analysis

The technique used was descriptive statistical analysis and multiple regression analysis through SPSS. Data collected resulted in 61 started surveys, 45 of which presented usable data in the consideration that they had been fully and deliberately completed by the culmination of the survey.

Of the 16 remaining surveys, 15 did not meet qualifications for completion of the survey and 1 survey had been attempted to past the Qualifying Questions but remained incomplete at the time of the survey’s end. Because of the presence of multiple independent variables, multiple-regression was used to examine the effect of each independent variable on dependent variable.

4. RESULTS

4.1. Measurement of Demographics

Of the initial 61 participants within the survey, 45 presented usable data that was analyzed. The first category evaluated was the statistical frequency of demographics within the survey participant pool, as seen in Table 1.

Table-1. Table of demographic representation.

Sex / Gender
Male	19	42.20%
Female	25	55.60%
Unidentified	1	2.20%
Age
25 or Younger	34	55.70%
26 – 35	3	4.90%
36 – 45	3	4.90%
46 – 55	4	6.60%
56 – 65	1	1.60%
Marital Status
Married	3	6.70%
Widowed	1	2.20%
Divorced	2	4.40%
Separated	1	2.20%
Single	38	84.40%
Education
Some College	18	29.50%
Associate’s	17	27.90%
Bachelor’s	10	16.40%
Income Level
$25,000.00 or less	26	32.60%
$25,001.00 – $50,000.00	12	19.70%
$50,001.00 00 $75,000.00	2	3.30%
$75,001.00 – $100,000.00	1	1.60%
Unidentified	4	6.60%
Previous Reception of Tipped Wages
Yes	32	52.50%
No	13	21.30%

Note: ** The presented demographics do not include the results of the revoked 16 participants and will not represent statistics out of 100% as a result of the missing data. The missing responses are calculated as “unidentified” and left in for numeric evaluation.

Of the 45 considered participants within the survey, approximately 42.2% identified as male, with 56.6% identifying as female, and 2.2% choosing not to self-identify. This, along with the trends of 55.7% of participants being aged 25 or younger, correlates with earlier predictions that a majority of the survey pool was going to consist of females within the Millennial and Generation Z categories, indicative of trends with overall college enrollment. More than half of the survey participants report being single, at 84.4%. The educational statistic determined that all participants had surpassed secondary education into post-secondary education, as would be standard for University students (and was a consideration within one of the two Qualifying Questions from the beginning of the survey).

While nearly half of all considered income levels qualified within the range of “$25,000.00 or less” earned annually, there was enough diversity within the calculated remaining 24.6% of participants to offer a varying viewpoint within responses, which was of consideration to the author. The final demographic, regarding the receipt of tipped wages (past or present) presented a split of approximately 52.5% of survey-takers having [at some point] worked for tipped wages in their career with 21.3% having not, was the highest-considered variable for the author, and was used for further data extrapolation

4.2. Measurement of Model

The measurement of the initial model proposed in Figure 1 was estimated using multiple linear regression (MRG), which is further explored Table 2 and Table 3.

Table-2. SPSS analysis of theoretical model.

Model Summary
Model	R	R-Square	Adjusted R-Square	Std. Error of Estimate	Change Statistics
					R-Square Change	F-Change
1	.855^a	.731	.711	.89727	.731	37.063

Note: a.) Predictors = (constant), TIP_AV, SE_AV, OC_AV.

While conducting analyses of the presented data, there was no apparent violation of the multivariate normality assumption in the distribution of residuals, ensuring use of the maximum likelihood theory. Goodness-of-fit measures were used to assess overall model fit, which resulted in a figure of R² = .731. Adjusted R² = .711, allowing for the possibility of bias within the research conducted, while still averaging a high percentage overall. F Change = 37.063, demonstrating a high justification for the number of variables (approximately 5 total) within the research. Present F Value equated to 37.06, showing a significance in the ratio of dependent and independent variables factored into the equation. The results for Significance of F Change (P value) were calculated to be .000, justifying that the variables considered within the model significantly affected the skew of results found. All the above fit indices for the final model indicated an acceptable structural model fit, for the model as presented in Figure 1.

Table-3. ANOVA analysis of theoretical model.

ANOVA^3
Model	Sum of Squares	DF	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Regression Residual Total	89.517 33.009 122.526	3 41 44	29.839 .805	37.063	.000^b

Note:

Dependent Variable: OCB_AV.

Predictors = (constant), TIP_AV, SE_AV, OC_AV.

5. DISCUSSIONS

The posted research hypotheses, as represented collectively by the model presented in Figure 1, were tested wholly in Table 2 and Table 3. Results from the current study indicates that Organizational Commitment (OC), Organizational Self-Esteem (OSE), and Attitude Towards Tipping Practices explained 73% of the variances of Organizational Citizenship Behavior.  However, only the coefficient of Organizational Commitment (OC) is significant when we look at the effect of each individual independent variable on Citizenship behavior. Therefore, only Hypothesis 3 was supported whereas Hypothesis 1 and 2 were not supported.

Based on the coefficient of Organizational Self-Esteem it can be concluded that, OSE holds the ‘lowest’ impact over total OCB. This suggests that individuals, even when not feeling valued within their working environments, are still likely to engage within OCB. However, it is possible that in order for an employee to begin to influence their work environment in a positive way that will, overall, yield a higher OSE (that, in turn, will yield a higher personal-self-esteem) (Flynn, 2003) of which this evidence seems indicative.

As predicted, a significantly positive relationship between OC and OCB was established, suggesting that, an individual who has determined their rate of intention to develop longevity within an organization will be more likely to engage in OCB overall, even discounting other independent variables. It is suggested that such commitment arises from cost-based calculations and results in a need to stay in the long- term relationship only when no other alternatives are available or the costs of switching to other options are too high (Meyer & Allen, 1991). This evidence also correlates with other studies (Burrell & Morgan, 2019; Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986) that suggest that employees who have been with an organization longer are more likely to engage in OCB overall. In summary, Organizational Commitment held the highest level of relevance to the output of OCB, followed by OSE, and Attitude towards Tipping.

5.1. Theoretical Implications

This study clearly showed the pivotal role of organizational commitment and ranked the impact of Organizational Commitment, Organizational Self-esteem, and organizational tipping perceptions into the overall affectation over organizational citizenship behavior. This allows further support and structure to be lent to future researchers who indicate that the presented theory of certain dependent variables impacting Citizenship Behavior, giving credence to future theses around the presented model.

Within the considerations of contributions that may be made by this study exists the conduct of the study; having deliberately used a very precise survey-pool that deliberately included select individuals within the hospitality industry (both educated and experienced within restaurant practices), in addition to measuring other demographics (from sex, age, race, etc.). This presents a unique view within an existing body of literature, insofar that this research measures precisely the output of thoughts and opinions of one subject of the relevant population, which has not been done in such a measure prior to this research. This contributes new and relevant information to said existing body of literature and provides a basis for the future conduct of studies centered around the same (or similar) premises. Additionally, this allows a clean pool of unmitigated data that allows for further analysis on less-directly-related research (such as the representation of gender division within the industry) to develop. Because of this, the continuation of knowledge and development will be encouraged through the offering of contributions in the pursuit, therein. This also encourages future researchers to gather more and informative data through their own research, in the interest of recognizing patterns wherein they might appear through unbiased research.

5.2. Managerial Implications

As the evidence provided by this research presents based on individual hypotheses, persons within a managerial role in hospitality organizations, specifically restaurants, would find significant applicable use within consideration of each construct (Organizational Self-Esteem, Reception of Tips, and Organizational Commitment) in determining the ideal candidates for employment.

The data indicated can be implemented from the beginning to the end of the employment-process. At the stage of the interview, managers would be able to justify questions that indicate Organizational Self-Esteem (“What makes you feel valued within a team?” “Describe your best kind of work environment.”), and Organizational Commitment (“How do you feel about training up?” “Would you be interested in taking on additional duties besides your job as indicated in the spec?” “What are your five-year plans?”), as all these qualities demonstrate a positive correlation with overall OCB (which has been determined to be on-par with desirable, valuable employees). Throughout the employment process, managers would be able to measure the relative success of their employees through identifying their needs (relevant to the indicated constructs), and use the notes taken during the interview process to boost each of these applications as able to, as deemed necessary, and as beneficial to the organization as a whole (which will, ideally, present growth and contribution within the company, as an employee moves through the ranks of employment, handles more duties, remains longer, and wholly contributes to the overall mission of the company, up to and including tipping policies and beyond). Even at the culmination of an employee’s term within an organization, exit-interviews can take into consideration the successful implementation of each construct, and allow parameters to be set into practice that will further develop the growth of OCB.

Most importantly, managers will do well to observe their respective employees hired and attend to their needs for Organizational Commitment to incur a more positive Citizenship behavior. Ensuring that their employees benefit from a workplace that promotes their self-esteem inside the workplace (which will, in turn, increase their self-esteem outside of the workplace (Flynn, 2003) giving them more valid reasons to commit to their organization for the long-term, and allowing them to understand the concept of tipping (how and why it is applied, wherein it is upheld within an organization, and all the related benefits and losses to taking part in such a practice [on the behalf of the employee, and not solely the employer] will all contribute significantly to having employees who are more engaged, and more engaged in citizenship behavior, allowing for longer, more productive, and ultimately more beneficial relationships between the employee and employer.

5.3. Overall Limitations

Though this study has demonstrated an adequate contribution to the current related literature, there are limitations within the research conducted and data provided that do restrict the overall applicability of these presented findings.  Organizational citizenship behavior is a dynamic construct that exists [made and measured by] of many factors; this study attempts to categorize this construct into but three contributory facets, and one resulting construct, which will fence the data that is collected.

Additionally, the primary focus of this study is to be specifically hospitality students with paid restaurant experience who have worked for or around tips; as a result, the findings of this study will not be ‘generalized’ to all persons with insight on tipping – educated, experienced, or otherwise – because of the sample selected. Too, the sample will include a higher concentration of Millennial and Generation Z than any other subset within the participating survey-takers, due to the location of the survey at a Midwestern University, which will limit possible data. This also contributed to a very limited sample size (with only 61 total participants, and only 45 of those participants eligible for consideration within the survey as a whole) and would be recompense as altered within future study for a larger number of participants, to entertain, examine, and prove the validity of the trends emerging and indicated within this study.

5.4. Future Research

As an improvement, it would be advisable for future studies to be more open to inclusive data, and not be restricted to one location within one section of one country. More thorough data could be gathered by surveying a wider array of experience [hospitality and / or culinary] students in multiple universities across the United States; this study could also be further developed by allocating research globally, to indicate trends in perceptions of tipping from country to country, comparative to their normal tipping procedures. This construct could further be developed with the inclusion of a wider pool of survey-takes and applicants, generating more diverse trends in resulting data that could indicate further correlation and / or causation within the exercise premise of this study.

Funding: This study received no specific financial support.

Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Acknowledgement: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study.

REFERENCES

Bies, R. J. (1989). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA, England: Lexington Books/D. C. Heath and Com.

Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley Press.

Boxall, P., & Winterton, J. (2018). Which conditions foster high-involvement work processes? A synthesis of the literature and agenda for research. Economic and Industrial Democracy, 39(1), 27-47. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831x15599584.

Burrell, G., & Morgan, G. (2019). Sociological paradigms and organizational analysis: Elements of the sociology of corporate life (pp. 118-217). London: Routledge.

Cho, S. (2008). Organizational citizenship behavior and employee performance: A moderating effect of work status in restaurant employees. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 32(3), 307-326.

Chun, J. S., Shin, Y., Choi, J. N., & Kim, M. S. (2013). How does corporate ethics contribute to firm financial performance? The mediating role of collective organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Management, 39(4), 853-877. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206311419662.

Creed, P. A., Bloxsome, T. D., & Johnston, K. (2001). Self-esteem and self-efficacy outcomes for unemployed individuals attending occupational skills training programs. Community, Work & Family, 4(3), 285-303. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/01405110120089350.

Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 500-507.

Flynn, F. J. (2003). How much should I give and how often? The effects of generosity and frequency of favor exchange on social status and productivity. Academy of Management Journal, 46(5), 539-553. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5465/30040648.

Gardner, D. G., & Pierce, J. L. (2010). The core self-evaluation scale: Further construct validation evidence. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 70(2), 291-304. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164409344505.

Katz, D. (1964). The motivational basis of organizational behavior. Behavioral Science, 9(2), 131-146.

Kim, M., & Beehr, T. A. (2018). Organization-based self-esteem and meaningful work mediate effects of empowering leadership on employee behaviors and well-being. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 25(4), 385-398. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051818762337.

Konovsky, M. A., & Pugh, S. D. (1994). Citizenship behavior and social exchange. Academy of Management Journal, 37(3), 656-669.

Korman, A. K. (1970). Toward an hypothesis of work behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 54(1p1), 31-41. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0028656.

Korman., A. K. (1971). Organizational achievement, aggression and creativity: Some suggestions toward an integrated theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 6(5), 593-613. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0030-5073(71)80009-0.

Meyer, J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1991). A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1(1), 61-89. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/1053-4822(91)90011-z.

Mowday, R., Porter, L., & Steers, R. (1979). The measurement of organizational commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14(2), 224-247.

Ojo, A. A. E. (2017). Organizational justice and self-esteem as predictors of organizational citizenship behaviour. IFE PsychologIA: An International Journal, 25(2), 32-46.

Organ, D. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior: It's construct clean-up time. Human Performance, 10(2), 85-97. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327043hup1002_2.

Rosenberg, M., Schooler, C., Schoenbach, C., & Rosenberg, F. (1995). Global self-esteem and specific self-esteem: different concepts, different outcomes. American Sociological Review, 60(1), 141-156. Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2096350.

Rosenfeld, P., Giacalone, R., & Riordan, C. (1995). Impression management theory and diversity: Lessons for organizational behavior. American Behavioral Scientist, 37(5), 601-604.

Sheldon, M. E. (1971). Investments and involvements as mechanisms producing commitment to the organization. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16(1), 142-150.

Shore, L. M., & Wayne, S. J. (1993). Commitment and employee behavior: Comparison of affective commitment and continuance commitment with perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(5), 774-780. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.5.774.

Takeuchi, R., Bolino, M. C., & Lin, C.-C. (2015). Too many motives? The interactive effects of multiple motives on organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(4), 1239-1248. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000001.