Since its insertion in 1998, Kigali Institute of Education, currently known as College of Education under the University of Rwanda, henceforth ‘The University of Rwanda-College of Education (UR-CE)’, it`s first mission has been training and producing teachers for secondary schools in Rwanda. To a certain extent, bearing in mind that Rwanda Education Board (REB), an institution in charge of education in Rwanda from kindergarten to secondary education, in designing its programmes, UR-CE curricula from Rwanda Education Board (REB) were taken into account. Recently, REB has introduced a new Competence-Based Curriculum (CBC) replacing the knowledge-based one that has been in practice for many years. Hence, the UR-CE is also obliged to revise its programmes and align them with the new CBC designed for secondary schools so that the UR-CE graduates are equipped with required knowledge and practical skills to cope with the demands of the newly introduced secondary school competence-based curriculum. Relying on existing documentation supported with our observations and critical analysis, this analytical paper attempts to highlight some of the knowledge, skills and attitudes deemed important to be incorporated in new UR-CE revised programmes in a way to align them with the secondary school Competence-based curriculum designed by REB. It also seeks to point out some of the challenges that might be associated with the teaching of such suggested knowledge, skills and attitudes; and provide measures to mitigate such challenges.
KeywordsCompetence-based curriculum, Secondary school, Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes and challenges, Incorporate.,
Received: 3 February 2018 / Revised:2 March 2018 / Accepted:5 March 2018 / Published:8 March 2018
This paper`s primary contribution is highlighting the gaps in the UR-CE existing programs, how to adjust those programs and align them with the current competence-based curriculum designed for secondary schools in Rwanda. It describes aspects, skills and skills to incorporate in the new programs taking into account the CBC requirements.
It has been acknowledged by different scholars that, the Competence-based curriculum approach is instrumental in helping students to increase the mastery of skills, knowledge and developing of self confidence in problem solving (Makunja, 2016). According to Weddel (2006) it is seen as an approach which improves students’ academic achievement. Moreover, ever demanding forces of globalisation have introduced new discourses into curriculum planning in the higher education. In order to sustain in the knowledge-based economy and to deal with demand in job market, incorporation of competency based curriculum is emerging as a necessity in higher education sector, while in order to develop competency-based curriculum in higher education, determination of competencies for each discipline and subsequent development of means of measurement and performance assessment is a must (Barman and Konwar, 2011). In addition, according to Keunho (2014) changes in today`s modern society are both rapid and intricate bringing both significant challenges and new responsibilities to the field of education. Whereas in the past people strived to acquire as much knowledge as possible, the new task of modern society, exposed to an exponential amount of knowledge and information is to select the highest quality information and make effective use of it. Such changes, stemming from this transformation into a knowledge-based society, require reshaping the past school-based system and ensuring coherent efforts that actively correspond to the accelerating social development. Keunho (2014) goes on to claim that one particular response to the demand for such change is the recent emphasis on key competencies. Rather than a simple accumulation of knowledge, developments regarding future school education environments are stressing the importance of the utilization of knowledge. Accordingly, the focal point of a curriculum must seek to overcome the narrow-minded past of traditional syllabi or written study plans and to focus on providing learners with the ability to develop knowledge selection and utilization skills. In this context, key competencies are becoming of profound interests both domestically and internationally as a critical aspect of education reform and curriculum innovation. Taking into account all these, considering education as one of the pillars to development in Rwanda, the government through the Ministry of Education urged for the implementation of competence-based curriculum, which started in primary and secondary education by January 2016. As higher education is concerned, modules and the teaching ways are to be adjusted to fit in a competence-based education. Hence, this analytical paper aims to highlight knowledge, skills and attitudes to incorporate in the UR-CE programs to align them with the CBC designed for secondary school in Rwanda; how to teach them; what are the challenges that one can face in the teaching of those incorporated concepts, and how to mitigate such challenges.
As briefly introduced above, taking into account that the world is becoming like a village and considering that a competence-based education as one that have to impart Rwandans with required knowledge, skills, and attitudes to cope with the current challenging and demanding world, Rwanda could not remain behind. To achieve quality education, three goals have been identified: promoting access to education at all levels, improving the quality of education and training, and strengthening the relevance of education and training to meet labour market demands” (Mineduc, 2013). Across these three goals, equity in access to education is emphasized to ensure that disadvantages students such as girls, the poor and disabled, have access to meaningful learning opportunities. In addition, for a good coordination and the pursuit of delivering quality education, in 2013 the University of Rwanda was established by merging seven higher education public institutions. It is the only public university in Rwanda and a multi-campus, multi-disciplinary university designed to meet the economic, social and cultural needs of the country; and students choose from a wide range of courses at undergraduate and post-graduate level, have access to modern facilities and are taught by internationally qualified staff (Mineduc, 2013).
After many years of relying on the use of a knowledge-based curriculum, considering current trends in education; in line with the above perspectives, Rwanda through the Ministry of Education and Rwanda Education Board taking into account that Education is one of the five pillars to sustainable development designed and introduced a competence-based curriculum to cater for the current needs in education. This is what is clarified in the following: “Rwanda is striving to build a knowledge-based economy, with particular emphasis on science and technology as en engine of development. Hence, one of the national priorities in the education system in Rwanda is to ensure that education quality continues to improve through closer integration of curriculum development, quality assurance and assessment, improved supply of learning materials, particularly textbooks, and improved teaching and learning strategies (REB, 2015). The implementation of the competence-based curriculum has got its implementation in primary and secondary education with the school year 2016/2017, and being a member of the East African Community, the curriculum was designed in line with the Harmonized Curriculum Framework. Hence, the Rwanda’s new competence-based curriculum matches global trends and is in the line with the 2013 Harmonized Curriculum Framework for the East African Community, in which partner states agreed to put in place a curriculum framework with a set of policies, regulations and guidelines central to curriculum development and implementation within the East African Community (REB, 2015).
2.1. Competence-Based Curriculum at UR-CE
The College of Education is one of the seven higher learning institutions that were merged together to for the University of Rwanda. Its main mission is to train competent and professional teachers who will teach different subjects to Rwandan learners at different levels of education, with a focus to secondary schools and TTCs. Recently, the Ministry of Education has introduced a competence-based curriculum that is now being implemented at both primary and some levels of secondary schools. According to REB (2015) the change to a competence-based curriculum is about transformation, ensuring that learning is deep, enjoyable and habit-forming, leading to high standards and levels of achievements. The College of Education under the University of Rwanda, formerly known as Kigali Institute of Education has been delivering modules which may not be full competence-based oriented. This is why, based on the existing modules, one of the taught module in language and linguistics is going to serve as a reference in analyzing the gap within existing modules in UR-CE and see what can be done to make them more competence-based. In this paper, all the analysis and criticisms are about “Module ENG 205- Materials Development in Language Teaching” annexed at the end of this work. The attempts are made in line with the followings as stipulate in the topic of the paper:
Before attempting the above, it is deemed important to define and clarify some of the key concepts used in this paper.
Under this section, different concepts in line with CBC are defined and/or described, but all of them cannot be tackled here. The concepts to describe involve among others, competence, competence-based curriculum, competence-based education, and those related ones such as competence-based language teaching, etc.
3.1.Competence vs Competency
Hoffmann (1999) claims that a number of definitions of competency/competence continues to grow along with different viewpoints, from different researchers. Those researching the field, as well as practitioners, have evolved several meanings that serve as a focus for their efforts to implement the competency approach to their work. However, Olson and Bolton (2002) highlight that a primary point of contrast is between individual competencies – those knowledge, skills, and abilities that individuals in the organization possess – and organizational competencies – those things that characterize collective action at the organizational level. Shaikhah et ali. (2009, cited in Barman and Konwar (2011)) claim that the term competence and competency are confused in the literature. Hoffmann (1999) asserts that it has been defined from several points of views and much ink has been spilt on finding accurate definition between competence/competences and competency/competencies. Moreover, Kouwenhoven (2009)presents a comprehensive definition of competency, according to which, ‘Competency’ is the capability to choose and use or apply an integrated combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes with the intention to realize a task in a certain context, while personal characteristics such as motivation, self-confidence, and willpower are part of that context; and ‘Competence’ is the capacity to accomplish ‘up to standard’ the key occupational tasks that characterize a profession. Therefore, according to Mackay (2003) competency may be defined as the necessary knowledge, skills, experience and attributes to carry out defined function effectively, whilst competence refers to those things the whole organization must be good at to outperform its competitors. Competence means the ability to apply knowledge, skills and personal, social and methodological skills in the workplace or during learning, as well as in personal and professional development (Nikolov, 2014).
According to Sulivan (2005 cited in Makunja (2016)) competence is a set of skills, knowledge and behaviours someone needs to have achieved in order to perform tasks or activities at school and in the world of work; whileKouwenhoven (2009) defines it as the capability to choose and apply an integrated combination of knowledge, skills and attitudes with the intention to realize a task in a certain context. Makunja (2016) takes competence as the ability of students to do a particular activity or task to a prescribed standard emphasizing what they can do rather than what they know. In this work, competence is used instead of competency and it briefly refers to the ability to use an appropriate combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and behaviour to accomplish a particular task successfully. That is, the ability to apply learning with confidence in a range of situations.
3.2. Curriculum vs. Syllabus
The term “curriculum” has different interpretations among scholars. Describing it, Richards (2010)claims that the term ‘curriculum’ is used to refer to the overall plan or design for a course and how the content for a course is transformed into a blueprint for teaching and learning which enables the desired learning outcomes to be achieved. According to Kelly (1999) curriculum is negatively viewed as a “syllabus which may limit the planning of teachers to a consideration of the content or the body of knowledge they wish to transmit or a list of the subjects to be taught or both”. In other words, simply convey subject knowledge is insufficient to be an effective curriculum. It should offer much more than a statement about the knowledge-content in order to be a productive curriculum.
Allen (1984, cited in Astika (2004)) defines curriculum from two perspectives. First, the curriculum is seen as a concept of education which includes administrative factors, social and philosophical order as the basis for the design of educational programs. On the other hand, according to applied linguistics, curriculum is an educational program that includes objectives, contents, teaching procedures, learning experience to achieve goals, and methods of assessment (evaluation) program (Richards, Platt, and Plait. 1992, cited in Astika (2004)). According to the author, the first definition refers to general curriculum, while the second definition refers specific language skills, which means it is very relevant to the study of English language syllabus design for English for Specific Purposes.
Briefly, curriculum can be viewed as the learning provided throughout the education system consisting of learning areas, subjects including knowledge and competences, cross cutting issues, basic and generic competences, skills and attitudes.
3.3.Competence-Based Education
Competency-based education (CBE) emerged in the 1970s in the US. It refers to an educational movement that advocated defining educational goals in terms of precise measurable description of the knowledge, skills, and behaviours students should possess at the end of a course of study (Guskey, 2005, cited in Wong (2007)). Grant et ali (cited in Edwards (2009)) define competence-based education as ‘a form of education that derives a curriculum from an analysis of a prospective or actual role in modern society and that attempt to certify student progress on the basis of demonstrated performance in some or all aspects of that role’, concluding that competence is a broad term , and that the programs based on competence can be very diverse with respect to their theoretical orientations, their scope, their intentions and their scientific focus. Hence, in line with competence-based education; education should be treated as a strategic agent for mind-set transformation and for the creation of a well-educated nation, sufficiently equipped with the knowledge needed to competently and competitively solve the development challenges which face the nation. In this light, the education system should be restructured and transformed qualitatively with a focus on promoting creativity and problems solving(URT, 2004)
3.4. Competence-Based Curriculum
According to Makunja (2016) competence-based curriculum is not a new concept in education systems of the world since the demand for greater accountability in education towards community involvement in decision-making gave great impetus to the concept. Setiono (2004) claims that as its name implies, competency-based curriculum (CBC) is designed on the basis of what the students can do in performing tasks rather than what they know about the tasks. In this respect, the notion competency becomes the key word. A student is said to be competent or to have competency if he or she has specific skills and knowledge required for effectively performing a real life task. For example, if a student can respond appropriately to his friend's letter of invitation in writing, he can be said to have the competency required for writing informal letters (Setiono, 2004). For quality education, according to Everhart (2014) a competency based learning/curriculum can be valuable for all of the stakeholders in our learning communities: learners have more opportunities to take ownership of their learning and expand their lifelong learning pathways; faculty grow professionally as they articulate the learning outcomes in their areas of expertise and embed them in rich learning experiences; academic leaders provide engaging curricula that advance knowledge and produce graduates who can demonstrate what they’ve learned; and institutional leaders focus on new ways of identifying barriers to success and achieving improved outcomes.Briefly, a competence-based curriculum can be taken as a curriculum designed to develop learners’ competences rather than just their knowledge. The focus on what learners can do ensures their learning has greater purpose and is deeper than it would be otherwise. A competence‐based curriculum is characterized by approaches that are largely learner‐centred, criterion‐referenced, constructivist, and focused upon learning outcomes (rather than content definition) and with an emphasis on formative assessment (REB, 2015). “It is designed to develop learners’ competences rather than just their knowledge focusing on what learners can do, ensuring that their learning has greater purpose and is deeper than it would be otherwise (REB, 2015)”.
In the same perspective of CBE concerns as highlighted above, Richards (2006) claims that the ever-growing need for good communication skills in English has created a huge demand for English teaching around the world. Millions of people today want to improve their command of English or to ensure that their children achieve a good command of English, and opportunities to learn English are provided in many different ways such as through formal instruction, travel, and study abroad, as well as through the media and the Internet. The author goes on to assert that ‘the worldwide demand for English has created an enormous demand for quality language teaching and language teaching materials and resources’- hence, the need of Communicative Based Language Teaching (CBLT). Richards and Rodgers (2001) describe Competence-based language teaching as an application of the principles of competence-based education to language teaching.
4.1. Theory of Language Teaching in CBLT
It is claimed that the major basis of CBLT is ‘the functional and interactional perspective on the nature of language Richards and Rodgers (2001) which means that language learning always needs to be connected to the social context it is used in. Therefore, a language is seen as a medium of interaction and communication between people who want to achieve ‘specific goals and purposes’ (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). This especially applied to situations in which the learner has to fulfil a particular role with language skills which can be predicted or determined for the relevant context. In connection to this, competence-based language teaching shares the behaviourist view of learning that certain life encounters call for certain kinds of language (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
4.2. The Goals of Language Teaching in a Competence-Based Language Curriculum
Though in the teaching of language, English language in Rwanda being the concern for this paper, much emphasis is on communicative competence, grammatical or linguistic competence will also not be fully ignored as they complement each other. Rwandan students need English language skills that will allow them communicate easily and clearly in both written and spoken ways responding to the needs of the society, locally and globally. Richards (2001) clarifies the term communicative competence that is highly needed by first comparing it with the concept of grammatical competence. According to him, grammatical competence refers to the knowledge we have of a language that accounts for our ability to produce sentences in a language. It refers to knowledge of the building blocks of sentences and how sentences are formed. Grammatical competence is the focus of many grammar practice books, which typically present a rule of gram-mar on one page, and provide exercises to practice using the rule on the other page. The unit of analysis and practice is typically the sentence. While grammatical competence is an important dimension of language learning, it is clearly not all that is involved in learning a language since one can master the rules of sentence formation in a language and still not be very successful at being able to use the language for meaningful communication. It is the latter capacity which is understood by the term communicative competence. According to Richards (2001) communicative competence includes the following aspects of language knowledge:
This section tries to come up with responses to questions highlighted in the paper, which are also pointed out one page 4 of this work. The base document in this work is the UR-CE module “ENG 205- Material developments in language teaching” annexed at the end.
5.1. Competence-Based Educational Outcomes in the Module ENG 205
First, as it appears on page 1 of the annexed module under point 7(Brief description of aims and content), the content seems to be fully theoretical and there is no window to practical activities for students.
Second, the item 8 that is about learning outcomes also presents theoretical approaches and appears to be more teacher-centred. Students get no time to be exposed and engage in the actual use of the language for communication purposes while Marsduqi (2006)claims that gaining communicative competence requires certain enabling conditions in order that it can be applied effectively.
Third, there is a gap of attitudes that students should manifest while and after going through the module content. What should be their behaviours in a situation where there is a scarcity of teaching aids or probably while facing a problem of a resource that is not easy to present in front of the students- a sensitive resource; or even a resource that is not easy to manipulate.
Fourth, having a look at the indicative content (page ii of the annexed module), there is no practical orientation and this is much needed is such a module and should get much time and be assessed to find out how students are practicing what they have acquired/learnt in theory.
. Finally, the assessment strategy and assessment patterns (Items 11 &12) of the annexed module) give no enough space to practice while students should more act as apprentices as material development is concerned.
5.2. Opportunities and Challenges in Implementing a Competence-Based Curriculum
Under this sub-section possible opportunities and challenges in implementing the competence-based curriculum when teaching English language and linguistics are highlighted, though not probably exhausted.
5.2.1. Opportunities in Implementing CBC in English Language and Linguistics at UR-CE
As opportunities in implementing CBC in English language and linguistics at UR-CE, one can mention among others the followings:
5.2.2. Challenges in implementing CBC in English language and Linguistics at UR-CE
At UR-CE, though the college has got qualified and competent lecturers in different fields, they are not enough if one considers the students-teacher ratio. Lecturers are not enough compared to the number of students to teach. This is a serious hindrance in the implementation of competence-based curriculum since a lecturer cannot have time to analyze individual weaknesses or strengths. Sometimes, it also becomes very difficult to provide feedback of assignments and CATs just because it takes time to mark a big number of students.The college also does not have sufficient infrastructures as laboratories and classrooms are concerned. Sometimes students are allocated rooms which are not enough to accommodate them and we find some of them sitting behind the class near the door and in the window. While there is a possibility of dividing those students into small groups and teach each group at different periods, it sometimes becomes impossible to find free rooms for such an arrangement. What happens then, is that a lecturer finds himself/herself in a room in front of a big number of students, what is termed ‘Chinese population’, and under such a context there is no way to move in the class. The lecturer will stand in front of the students and the favour approach to use remains teacher-centred, which is far from the application of competence-based education. Moreover, few infrastructures which are there are also not equipped with materials, both audio and audio-visual to help both students and lecturers apply CBE principles.
5.3. Ways to Mitigate Challenges in Implementing CBC in English Language and Linguistics
Despite, the challenges abovementioned as the implementation of CBC is concerned at UR-CE, especially in English language and linguistics teaching, there are possible ways to cater for those challenges. Among others, one can highlight the followings:
This paper, apart from sharing viewpoints of different scholars on how competence-based curriculum and related keywords are perceived, has also highlighted the existence of gaps in UR-CE modules, especially in English language and linguistics since the referral module here is in language. There are gaps as practical activities in line with competence-based education are concerned, and it was observed that most of the time it is the teacher-centred approach through lectures that is used due to different factors such as big classes as students-teacher ratio is concerned; lack of required infrastructures and equipments needed to facilitate the teaching/learning process. However, despite all these challenges, opportunities to implement a competence-based curriculum at UR-CE is possible based on qualified lecturers who are there who can teach among themselves as additional to trainings that they can get in line the competence based-approaches. Suggestions on how CBC can be implemented in UR-CE have also been formed. To be brief, as language teaching is concerned, the teaching that is knowledge-based should be given up and give a space to communicative competence-oriented teaching, or simply a competence-based language teaching in line with competence-based education.
| Funding: This study received no specific financial support. |
| Competing Interests: The author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper. |
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ANNEX: Module ENG 205 - Materials Development in Language Teaching
1. Module Code:ENG 205 Faculty: Education
2. Module Title: Materials Development in Language Teaching
3. Level: 2 Semester: 1Credits: 20
4. First Year of Presentation:2012-2013 Administering Faculty: Arts & Languages
5. Pre-Requisite Modules: ENG 101 Co-requisite modules: NONE
6. Allocation of Study and Teaching Hours
| Total module hours:200 | Students hours |
| Face to face : - Lecturers - Seminars, Workshops….. - Structured Exercises - Guided Trips - Presentation, reports…. |
72 |
| Individual Student Work…. : -Set Reading (books indicated by the lecturer) - Self Directed Study (Library, Internet…) - Individual consultations(tutoring) |
35 50 - |
| Continuous Assessment Test CAT: - Sitting CAT - Essay type - Making of CATS |
3 20 - |
| Examination: -Revision - Attendance - Setting paper, marking scheme - Marking - Invigilation |
16 4 - - - |
| TOTAL | 200 |
7. Brief Description of Aims and Content
This module aims to give you an understanding of:
The relationship between the attainment of educational objectives and the enabling role of teaching and learning modes and means, the principles and practice of materials development in language teaching and preparing students to teach English, the importance of teaching materials, the source of teaching materials and factors to consider in choosing teaching materials.
8. Learning Outcomes
Knowledge and understanding
At the end of the module, students should demonstrate knowledge and understanding of:
i. The principles and practice of materials development in language teaching/ learning
ii. The principles of course design and curriculum developments
iii. The relationship between educational objectives, teaching, and learning materials
Cognitive/Intellectual skills/application of knowledge
Having successfully
completed the module, students should be able to:
iv. Develop materials to meet the learning requirements of specific target groups
vi. Make priority and grade language teaching materials
Communication/ICT/analytical techniques/practical skills Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:
vii. The evaluation of the appropriate use of print and media for course delivery and effective learning
General Transferable skills Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to:
viii. Contribute to policy discussions on the acquisition and development of materials
9. Indicative Content
Interpretation of college language curriculum, preparing schemes of work, lesson plans ,their purpose and rationale; criteria for selecting and grading the language teaching materials, the importance of local environment in language teaching and materials development, organisation and improvisation in language teaching, etc.
10. Teaching and Learning Methods/Strategies
Lectures, guided practical work, peer groups, group works and presentations
11. Assessment Strategy
This should involve class presentation works; sample tests designing, sitting CATs and Final Exam. The assignments will be designed to demonstrate the students` ability to compose test in assessing different language skills.
12. Assessment Pattern
| Component | Weighting % | Learning outcomes covered |
| CATs : | 40 % |
|
| Assignments and/or Group works/Presentations | 20 % |
i- iii |
| Sitting CAT | 20 % |
iv-vi |
| Final examination | 60 % |
i- viii |
| TOTAL | 100 % |
13. Strategy Feedback and Student Support during the Study of the Module
The practical work will be checked at regular stages before the completion of the module. Invigilated assessments will be returned to the students after marking and model answers to the questions of the assessment given in class along with the corrected scripts.
14. Indicative Resources
Core Texts
Crawford, J. (2002), “The role of Materials in the Language Classroom: Finding the Balance”, in Richards, J. &Renandya, W. (eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching – An Anthropology of Current Practice, Cambridge: CUP.
Klapper, J. (2006), Understanding and developing good practice: LanguageTeaching in Higher Education, London: CILT.
Mar Gutlérrez – Colon (2008), What is necessary in Pre-planned Materials, Language in India, Vol. 8 ( 6).
Tomlinson, B.(1998),Materials developments in language teaching, Cambridge: CUP.
Tomlinson, B.(2003),Developing materials for language teaching, ContinuumInternational Publishing Group Ltd.
Background Texts
McDonoug, J. &Shawr, Ch. (1993), Materials and Methods in ELT.A teacher’s Guide, Oxford: Blackwell.
Cunningworth, A. (1984), Evaluating and Selecting ELT Teaching Materials, London: Heinemann.
Nunan, D. (2003), Practical English Language Teaching, Edinburgh: E. University Press.
PyfersLiesbeth& Ivor Timmis (2007), English Without Frontiers: Methods, Activities, Materials, Pragma, the Netherlands.
Ur, P.(1996), A Course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory, Cambridge: CUP.
Yalden, J. (1995), Principles of course design for language teaching, Oxford: OUP.
15. Please Add Anything Else You Think is Important
16. Module Team:Prof. S. NDOMBA (Module leader) ; Mr. KANIU M.
17. Unit Approval
Department/Faculty |
Head of Department/Dean |
Date |
1. HOD Literature |
Signature |
|
Dr. Emmanuel AHIMANA |
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2. HOD Lan.&Linguistics |
Signature |
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Dr. Cyprien NIYOMUGABO |
|
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3.HOD COMSKILLS |
Signature |
|
--- |
|
|
4. Dean |
Signature Dr. Eugene NSANZABIGA |
|
Seen and Agreed
Library |
Signature |
|
Mr. MBARUBUKEYE T. T. |
|
|
ICT |
Signature |
|
Mr. Zitoni GAETAN |
|
|
Quality Office |
Signature |
|
Dr. A. MUHIRWA |
|