Index

Abstract

The implementation of the bottom-up model policy especially the Smith model has not been effective in implementing the policy of the National Program for Community Empowerment of Independent Urban Area, known as PNPM MP, in Makassar City. Through qualitative method with case study, performance of policy implementation of PNPM MP aims to assist and develop community through development trajectory, but new infrastructure development is quite successful, but economic development in business capital and socio-political development has not been effective. The program, for example; Social development problem is stagnant after much practice because it is not supported by the equipment work post training. The ability to manage revolving funds, and repayment of interest on loans, and cooperate with others economically. Politically they generally do not know it. The overall linkage is very weak, so it sometimes provokes confusion to frictions between stakeholders in the region. The cause of the problem is that stakeholders are adopting what is formulated as a poverty alleviation policy (PNPM MP). However, the policy does not provide the flexibility of stakeholders or target groups to change policy objectives. This means that the peasants program of poverty is not bottom up, but a combination of top down and bottom up.

Keywords:Implementation, Integrated model, Public policy, National program, Community, Empowerment.

Received: 11 September 2017 / Revised: 17 November 2017 / Accepted: 6 December 2017 / Published: 18 December 2017

Contribution/ Originality

This research contributes to the policy implementation literature which shows a new model of implementation of the national community empowerment program and this study finds the problem of economic development in the development of business capital and socio-politics has not been effective. This model contributes thought to the government to take effective policy measures.

1. INTRODUCTION

The National Program for Community Empowerment of Independent Urban Area or PNPM MP which began in 2007 will be renamed the Urban Quality Improvement Program, but the spirit remains the same for community empowerment programs in urban areas. PNPM MP is a government program that substantially strives in poverty alleviation. The problem of poverty is a problem that much attention to many, especially the scientists. In 2016, the number of households according to data from the Social Service of Makassar City Government stated that the population of Makassar, which amounted to 1,743,686 people, as many as 71,429 household cards (KK) with 286,513 registered poor people.

The result of research using top down model from Van Meter and Van Horn (Nurharjadmo, 2008) shows that the performance of policy implementation of PNPM MP in Makassar has not been effective yet. In theory the bottom-up model as proposed by Smith (1973) in Putra (2003) views implementation as a process or flow. Smith states that there are four variables to be considered in the policy implementation process: (1) idealized policy, (2) target group, (3) implementing organization, (4) environmental factors. But empirically in this study focused on Environmental factors (social, economic and political). Environmental factors are, among others, only in the form of attention and work, community mutual cooperation, and level of community participation, so the target group is less effective in implementing the policy of PNPM MP.

The cause of the problem is, the stakeholders less adopt the formulated of PNPM MP policy, so the program is less coordinated and runs independently. The overall linkage is very weak, and sometimes leads to confusion to frictions between stakeholders in the region. This condition is even triggered by the many programs with the jargon of community empowerment and the central sectoral program, which "passes" (skips and does not consider) the important role of local government. At the time of regional autonomy, it is very ironic if the problem occurs, because in the autonomous region as a terminal point of coordination of the meeting of the aspirations from the bottom and the policy of the above met. The government bureaucratic units responsible for the implementation of PNPM MP policies lack the understanding of their main duties and functions, and the socio-cultural, economic and political aspects of the program do not significantly affect the implementation of poverty reduction policies.

If referring to the above background, especially in the generation of both the bottom up model of PNPM MP, synergy is required in the implementation of the policy. Therefore, the title of this research is "Bottom-Up Public Policy Implementation Model in PNPM MP in Makassar City, South Sulawesi Province". The purpose of this research is to can adopt the formulated of PNPM MP policy in Makassar City, the government bureaucratic units are responsible for the implementation, and the socio-cultural, economic and political aspects in the implementation of PNPM MP policy in Makassar City.

2. LITERATURE REVIEWS

One of the paradigms of public administration is the public policy paradigm. This paradigm focuses its attention and analysis on the overall policy process (Mustopadidjaja, 1985). Public policy is whatever the government chooses to do or not to do (Dye, 1972). This understanding is in line with Dunn (1999) definition, which states that public policy is a set of choices of government action (including the option of not acting) to respond to challenges that concern the lives of the people.

Implementation of policies is the implementation of basic policy decisions, usually in the form of Laws, but can also take the form of important executive orders or decisions or judicial decisions (Mazmanian and Sabiter, 1983). To implement public policy, Nugroho (2003) offers two options: 1) Immediate implementation in the form of programs, 2) through the formulation of derivative policies or derivatives of the public policy.

The most influential contributions in the development of public policy implementation studies were Pressman and Aaron (1973). Three generations in the implementation of public policy are; The first generation (1970s) or top-down models. The second generation (1980s) or the bottom-up model, and the third generation (1990s), or the synthesis model developed by Malcom L. Goggin, formulated that the behavior of the actors that implementing policy more determines the success of policy implementation.

Specific models of second generation public policy implementation are born as criticisms of top-down models that do not explain the role of actors and other elements in the implementation process. These criticisms lead to the emergence of a bottom-up perspective. The bottom-up model is often called backward mapping or adaptive approach. Bottom-up models include the street-level bureaucrats model of Lipsky (1980) the implementation structure model of Hjern and Porter (1981) the action model of Barrett and Fudge (1981) and the process model or flow of Smith (1973) in Putra (2003). Here is a summary of the bottom-up theories.

Street-Level Bureaucrats model of Lipsky. Lipsky is the founding father from a bottom-up perspective. His analysis of front-line staff behavior in the policy implementing agency, called street-level bureaucrats, has an important influence on implementation studies. The emphasis on the role of street-level bureaucrat has been used by other analysts as a justification for methodological strategies that focus on implementation work rather than on policy input as in top-down implementation theories.

The model of the implementation structure of Hjern and colleagues suggests that successful implementation of the program depends largely on the skills of individuals within the local implementation structure. Individuals in this local structure can adapt policies to local conditions. However, according to Hjern and colleagues, the central initiative is poorly adapted to local conditions. The bottom-up model emphasizes the fact that "on the ground" implementation provides flexibility in policy implementation (Parsons, 2005). Public policy should examine the interaction of bureaucrats with their clients at the street level. Street-level Bureaucrats or policy implementers should be equipped with many things not only knowledge and skills but also the authority to make adjustments.

Policy and Action Model by Barrett and Fudge. The Barrett and Fudge model is based on the implementation structure model of Hjern and colleagues. Barrett and Fudge refers to the development of organizational theory that challenges hierarchical perspectives in the way organizations work. They argue that most actions in an organization depend on compromises among various parties within an organization or among the organizations concerned.

Susan Barret and Colin Fudge cited Parsons (2005) argue that implementation may best be understood in the "action policy continuum term" whereby interactive processes and negotiations take place over time, between those who seek to implement policies and those whose actions depend on the executive. Second-generation research engages in the development of analytic frameworks and gradually leads to a confrontation between top-down and bottom-up perspectives. Each of these perspectives rests on different assumptions about the nature of inter-organizational relations (Goggin, 1990).

The bottom-up model proposed by Smith (1973) in Putra (2003) views implementation as a process or flow. Smith states that there are four variables that need to be considered in the process of policy implementation: (1) idealized policy, which is an interaction pattern idealized by the policy framework in order to encourage, influence and stimulate the target group to implement it; (2) the target group, which is part of the policy stakeholders, is expected to adopt the interaction patterns as expected by the policy makers; (3) implementing organization, is implementing agencies or government bureaucratic units responsible for the implementation of policies; (4) environmental factors, is elements within the environment affecting policy implementation (i.e., cultural, social, economic, and political aspects).

Smith uses his theoretical model in the form of a system in which a policy is being implemented, the interactions within and between the four factors lead to inconsistencies and will cause stress or tension. Such inconsistencies, tensions and pressures result in patterns of interaction, i.e. patterns that are not fixed with respect to the objectives of a policy. These interaction patterns may result in the formation of certain institutions, as well as feedback to reduce tension and be returned to the matrix of transaction and institutional patterns.

The bottom-up approach model proposed by Smith will provide a high score on realism and implementation capability. Because the model views that policy implementation does not run in a linear or mechanistic way, it opens the opportunity for transaction through negotiation process, or bargaining to generate compromise on policy implementation with target group dimension. However, the ability of the agency or implementing unit when the policy is implemented is still questionable on its readiness and capability.

The four variables above are not stand alone, but a unity that mutually influence and interact on a reciprocal basis, must mutually influence and interact in mutual influence in the implementation of policy PNPM MP.

Figure-2.1. Research Framework

Source: Adapted from Smith (1973) on Bottom Up Model Implementation of Public Policy

3. RESEARCH METHODS

This research uses qualitative descriptive method by data collection technique through Interview technique with informant such as; TKPD, BKM / NGO poverty, Community, Poor. Qualitative data analysis 1997, (Miles and Huberman, 1992; Moleong, 1997; Yin, 2011). Makassar City is administratively the capital of South Sulawesi Province in the western part of the island of Sulawesi. The consideration of the selection of this research location because the Government of Makassar, South Sulawesi quite succeeded in eradicating the poverty rate of people in the region. This is evidenced by the decline in Makassar poverty rate that continues decline. Based on data from the Board of Central Statistics, the number of heads of households in poor category in 2010, reached 62,192 families, but in 2011, has decreased to 35,097 families. (Makassar in figure, 2015). In 2016, the number of households according to data from the Social Service of Makassar City Government stated that the population of Makassar, which amounted to 1,743,686 people, as many as 71,429 families with 286,513 registered as poor people.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Research Result

4.1.1. Ideal Policy of PNPM MP

Policies that have been set out General Guidelines of PNPM MP are aimed to increase the welfare and employment opportunities for the poor societies on their own. In particular the objective of PNPM MP is to help the urban poor community in sub-districts/ villages as program beneficiaries to received benefit from improved of environmental conditions and good governance. Indeed, PNPM MP is a "social transformation process" with the aim to help poor community into empowerment, and independent toward civil society. To achieve the intended objectives, the implementation of the "empowerment" approach is used, mainly to alleviate the poverty of the powerless society to be empowered, independent, and finally prosperous. The objectives of PNPM MP are to strengthen and institute BKM / LKM that are trusted, aspirational, and the availability of Medium Term Planning. For more details according to the results of interviews with informer, after data reduction and drawn the following conclusions:

We are never here to know about PNPM MP policy, we know that there are only programs for community empowerment. The goal is to help the poor society such as providing revolving funds, courses. The objectives of the PNPM program are the poor community and the environment. community as subject but not as object because community will participate in the role starts from proposal, planning, execution, management and supervision. The activities of the PNPM MP are divided into three areas: infrastructure, economy and social affairs. All are set out in technical guidelines and guidelines for implementation of PNPM MP (interviewed on 5 June 2017).

Poverty Reduction Program in districts/ villages level as a forum to realize the synergy of various comprehensive poverty reduction programs. The objectives of PNPM MP policy can be said to be “fit” or match, in an ideal and realistic sense. It is said to be ideal because this policy is in accordance with the ideals of independence contained in the constitution and realistic, because there are yet urban community living under the poverty line for various reasons. Programs and projects of PNPM MP directly touch their needs and expectations.

4.1.2. Target Group

Target group, which is part of policy stakeholders expected to adopt the formulated of PNPM MP policy in Makassar City. To be honest it is said that generally the attitude of receiving and supporting the policy of PNPM MP by the executing agency has a positive effect to the successful implementation of PNPM MP Program in Makassar City. This is in accordance with the results of interviews with the informer, after reducing the data and drawn the following conclusions:

The determination of the poor groups according to the category of Social Agencies and Board of Central Statistics and the poor groups are entitled to receive revolving funds. But we cannot make the program by ourselves because there is already a benchmark from the center. Therefore, we have no authority because all programs have been determined by PNPM MP such as; infrastructure, economic and social. The PNPM Program is the foreign debt originating from the bank of the World Bank (interview dated 6 June 2017).

In reality, the involvement in solving problems is through a very limited time of meeting, it means if they have spare time, they will attend the meeting. Available resources, whether human resources, finance, or other equipment, often inhibit PNPM MP programs. There is no discretion / authority to make policy adjustments.

4.1.3. Implementing Organization

Implementing organization are implementing agencies or government bureaucracy units that responsible for policy implementation. Implementing organizations are formal organizations that have links to PNPM MP implementing organizations, such as; Sub-district, District, Public of Works Agency, ​​Development Planning Agency at Sub-National Level, Community Development Agency, Inspectorate, Social Agency, Cooperative, Industry and Trade Agency, the Assistant, BRI, and Consultant and PNPM assistant assigned by Provincial Government. This is in accordance with the results of interviews with the informer, after reducing the data and drawn the following conclusions:

The bureaucratic unit that involved in PNPM, there is a term called working unit, consists of, Public of Works Agency, ​​Development Planning Agency at Sub-National Level (TKPKD/Development Planning Agency at Sub-National Level), Community Development Agency, Social Agency. Central government which determines the structure of its bureaucracy, its funding mechanism and its disbursement cycle are all determined by the center. There was a deliberation but the invited only attended the head of neighborhood or hamlet, while the community was not involved. With the presence of heads of neighborhood and hamlet, the PNPM itself has considered that community are involved. The works mechanism is that the city government is only a facilitator, all determined by the central government because it is a national program (interview dated 7 June 2017).

Implementation of PNPM MP does not have a direct relationship with the implementation of PNPM MP policies that implemented by BKM, both forms of supervision to solve problems, power and authority, and communication and coordination. They only meet at the level of communication forums at the District and City levels as a forum for coordination and involvement formal organization (government) is not seen in the implementation of PNPM MP policy.

4.1.4. Environmental Factors

Environmental factors are elements within the environment that affect the implementation of policies (such as, social, economic, and political aspects). Social environment according to interview result with informer, after data reduction and drawn conclusion as follows;

The external (social) environment contributes for the successful of the PNPM MP policy through regular meetings between stakeholders, as well as if any problems, then the relevant parties coordinate to discuss it in order to solve the problem. The existence of community and government support so that this PNPM program can be implemented. One form of support can be seen in the activities of the gotong royong when the BKM management asks for community participation in the PNPM MP policy program (interview dated 8 June 2017).

Thus, there is support from surrounding communities in the implementation of the program socially. One form of support is the participation of the PNPM policy success community.

The external environment (economy) contributes to the success of the PNPM MP policy, perhaps the head of sub-districts or villages more informed, although not in large and continuous numbers, but there are entrepreneurs who provide assistance in the form of materials and equipment for the execution of PNPM MP projects. The economic environment is according to the results of interviews with the informer, after data reduction and the following conclusions are drawn;

The existence of revolving funds for the poor community helps a little bit in their business. Besides that, it reduces the poor community to borrow in loan sharks. Revolving funds are very helpful to our economy because the interest is very light compared to the Bank then there is also savings there but sometimes not right on target because there are those who can help but do not have a business. The poor community are not getting help when they already have a group (interview on 8 June 2017).

In some sub-district, there is economic support from certain parties, whose numbers are very minimal and usually in place where they live. While the external environment (politics) contributes to the success of PNPM MP policy, they generally do not know. There is no political factor in running this program, because everything is determined by the center, we just oversee the program.

5. DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH RESULTS

PNPM MP Policy. The policies that will be implemented according to the results of the study never know the policy regarding PNPM MP, we know that there is only a program for community empowerment. This is based on an inadequate level of understanding of the issues to be addressed, because of the problems and ways of solving them, or the availability of opportunities to solve the problem, the nature of the problem and what it takes to exploit these opportunities. Poverty Reduction Program at the sub-district / village level as a forum to realize the synergy of various comprehensive poverty reduction programs. A deep understanding and agreement on goals. It should be clearly defined, specific, easy to understand, quantifiable and agreed upon by all parties involved in the organization. However, various studies have revealed that in practice the goals to be achieved from difficult programs are identified. Official objectives are often not well understood, perhaps because top-down or vice versa communication does not work. Even if at the outset the goals are understood and agreed upon but there is no guarantee that these conditions can be preserved during program implementation, as they tend to be easily changed, expanded and diverted.

Target Group. The determination of the poor community according to the category of Social Agency and Board of Central Statistics and the poor are entitled to receive revolving funds. But we cannot create our own program because there is already a benchmark from the center. This means the target group is implementing the PNPM MP program based on the provisions of the center including the funds. The implementation of the PNPM MP program should have sufficient time and availability of resources, it means that the combination of required resources is sufficient. This requirement means that on the one hand there must be guaranteed no constraints on all necessary resources, and on the other hand, each stage of the process of implementing the combination between the sources shall be made available. In practice, the implementation of programs that require a combination of funds, labor and equipment needed to implement the program must be prepared simultaneously, but it turns out that one of the components is experiencing a delay in the provision so that the program is delayed in implementation.

Implementing Organization. The bureaucratic unit that involved in PNPM, there is a term called working unit, consists of Public of Works Agency, ​​Development Planning Agency at Sub-National Level (TKPKD/Development Planning Agency at Sub-National Level), Community Development Agency, Social Agency, Central Government. Tasks are detailed and placed in the proper order and their bureaucracy structure, funding mechanism and disbursement cycle are all determined by the center. This requirement implies that in carrying out the program towards the achievement of agreed objectives, it is yet possible to specify and arrange in the proper order all the tasks that must be performed by each part that involved. The difficulty of achieving perfect implementation conditions is yet unavoidable. To control the program well can be done by technologies such as Network planning and control (Robbins and Barnwell, 2002).

Perfect communication and coordination. This requirement requires perfect communication and coordination among the various elements or agencies involved in the program. Hood (1976) in this connection states that in order to achieve the perfect implementation required a single system of administrative units to create good coordination. This is because in the practice of Weber's bureaucratic structure model alongside the values ​​of traditional organizational structures led to the growing of modern organizational forms into patrimonial system. In this system according to Efendi (1993) there is what is known as dualism between traditional bureaucratic systems that emphasizes inefficient administrative ritualism and modern bureaucratic systems that emphasize efficient administrative rationalism. In most organizations that have the characteristics of departmentalization, professionalization, and various group activities that protect the group's values ​​and interests there is almost no perfect coordination. Communication and coordination have a very important role in the implementation process because data, warrants and commands can be understood in accordance to what is desired.

Environmental Factors. The external (social) environment contributes to the success of the PNPM MP policy through regular meetings between stakeholders, as well as if any problems, then the relevant parties coordinate to discuss it in order to solve the problem. Social grouping is the range of people in which they form a social alliance based on kinship relationships such as clan and others. Social interactions within the community have a diversity that corresponds to their status as well as their respective roles. This can be seen in the interaction between one citizen with other citizens such as cooperation, shoulder to shoulder, competition and also gotong royong.

The economic environment is an economic condition having a strong impact on the performance of any policy implementation because it can affect revenue. The existence of revolving funds for the poor community helps a little bit in their business. Besides that, it reduces the poor community to borrow in loan sharks. Revolving funds are very helpful to our economy because the interest is very light compared to the Bank then there is also savings there but sometimes not right on target because there are those who can help but do not have a business. The political environment contains diverse events such as civil issues (conflict), continuing action against PNPM MP and conflicts between various programs.

6. IMPLEMENTATION MODEL OF PNPM MP POLICY

Based on the results and discussion as described earlier, the compiled research proposition as social, economic and political factors that affect the implementation of PNPM MP policy are as follows:

6.1. Major Proposition

PNPM MP Policy Implementation is determined by target groups which is social, economic characteristics, and politics interactions.

6.2. Minor Proposition

1. PNPM MP Policies, formed by a deep understanding and human resource agreement on objectives and targets of policy.
2. Implementation of PNPM MP policy, determined by the ideal policy through the target group. PNPM MP.
3. Target group, determined by PNPM MP policy and interaction of environmental factor and implementation of PNPM MP organization.

For more details PNPM MP Policy Implementation Model as a factor affecting the implementation of PNPM MP policy can be seen in the picture as follows:

Source: Model Suratman,et al. Bottom – Up PNPM MP Policy Implementation

7. CONCLUTION

The bottom-up model proposed by Smith (1973) states that there are four variables to be considered in the policy implementation process: (1) idealized policy, (2) target group, (3) implementing organization, (4) environmental factors. The fourth variables above are not stand alone, but a unity that mutually influence and interact on a reciprocal basis, must mutually influence and interact in mutual influence in the implementation of PNPM MP policy. However, in its implementation in Makassar, according to the results of research, it does not affect each other or interact, instead focusing on the target group or part of the policy stakeholders who are expected to adopt interaction patterns as expected by the ideal policy. Target group received from the implementing organization, the target group received input from the environmental factors, both social and economic, except the political factor is not in running the PNPM MP program, because all have been determined by the center. Thus, the applied model is still using the model mix model top down and bottom up model.

Funding: This study received no specific financial support.

Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Contributors/Acknowledgement: All authors contributed equally to the conception and design of the study.

 

REFERENCES

Barrett, S.M. and C. Fudge, 1981. Policy and action: Essays on the implementation of public policy. London: Methuen.

Dunn, W.N., 1999. Pengantar analisis kebijakan publik. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.

Dye, T.R., 1972. Understanding public policy. NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Efendi, S.D.K.K., 1993. Pembangunan Kualitas Manusia: Suatu Perspektif Administrasi Negara Dalam Membangunan Martabat Manusia Peranan Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial Dalam Pembangunan, Cetakan Kedua. Yogyakarta Gadjah Mada University Press.

Goggin, M.L., 1990. Implementation theory and practice, toward a third generation. USA: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Hjern, B. and D.O. Porter, 1981. Implementation structures: A new unit of administrative analysis. Organization Studies, 2(3): 211-227. View at Google Scholar | View at Publisher

Hood, C., 1976. The limits of administration. London; Toronto Wiley.

Lipsky, M., 1980. Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services. Russell: Sage Foundation.

Mazmanian, D.A. and P.A. Sabiter, 1983. Impelementation and public policy. New Jersery: Scott, Foresman and Company.

Miles, M.B. and M.A. Huberman, 1992. Analisis data kualitatif. Jakarta: UI Press.

Moleong, L.J., 1997. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif, Edisi Revisi. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya.

Mustopadidjaja, A.R., 1985. Paradigma-Paradigma Pembangunan dan Saling Hubungannya dengan model, Strategi, dan Kebijakan dalam Penyelenggaraan Pemerintahan dan Pembangunan. Jakarta: LAN-RI.

Nugroho, R.D., 2003. Kebijakan publik: Formulasi, implementasi dan evaluasi. Jakarta: Elex Media Komputindo.

Nurharjadmo, W., 2008. Evaluasi Implementasi Kebijakan Pendidikan Sistem Ganda di Sekolah Kejuruan. Jurnal Spirit Publik, 4(2): 215-228. View at Google Scholar 

Parsons, W., 2005. Public policy: Pengantar Teori dan Praktik analisis Kebijakan. Jakarta: Prenada Media.

Pressman, J. and W. Aaron, 1973. Implementation. California: University of California Press.

Putra, F., 2003. Paradima Kritis Dalam Studi Kebijakan Publik. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.

Robbins, S.P. and N. Barnwell, 2002. Organization theory, concepts and cases. 4th Edn., Australia: Pearson and Education Australia Pty Ltd.

Smith, T.B., 1973. The policy implementation process. Policy Sciences, 4(2): 197-209. View at Google Scholar 

Yin, R.K., 2011. Applications of case study research. California: Sage.