Modeling online learning effectiveness in regulated-access technical education

Abstract

Online and hybrid learning are now part of everyday higher education practice, but their value is more difficult to assess in technical programs where laboratory work, supervised practice, and operational competencies remain central. This issue is particularly important in regulated-access technical education, where practical and laboratory-based training cannot be reduced to a secondary component of the curriculum. Previous studies have examined satisfaction, engagement, motivation, performance, and practical skills in online or virtual laboratory settings, but less is known about how learning conditions shape students’ perceived effectiveness of online learning. This study draws on survey data from 401 engineering and technology students enrolled in Moroccan higher education institutions. It examines the relationships between pedagogical methods, online learning resources, academic interaction, students’ psychological state, and perceived learning effectiveness. The proposed causal model was tested using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The analysis supports all hypothesized relationships. Academic interaction shows the strongest effect on students’ psychological state (β = 0.381, p < 0.001), followed by pedagogical methods (β = 0.214, p = 0.002) and online learning resources (β = 0.168, p = 0.011). Students’ psychological state also contributes significantly to perceived learning effectiveness (β = 0.463, p < 0.001). The findings indicate that online learning in technical programs gains educational value when digital resources are pedagogically organized, supported by instructor interaction and feedback, and connected to laboratory preparation.